NAPHTHALENE
Human Health Effects:
Evidence for Carcinogenicity:
WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE CHARACTERIZATION: Using criteria of the 1986 Guidelines for
Carcinogen Risk Assessment, naphthalene is
classified in group C, a possible human carcinogen. This is based on the inadequate data
of carcinogenicity in humans exposed to naphthalene
via the oral and inhalation routes, and the limited evidence of carcinogenicity in animals
via the inhalation route. Using the 1996 Proposed Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk
Assessment, the human carcinogenic potential of naphthalene
via the oral or inhalation routes "cannot be determined" at this time based on
human and animal data; however, there is suggestive evidence (observations of benign
respiratory tumors and one carcinoma in female mice only exposed to naphthalene
by inhalation). Additional support includes increase in respiratory tumors associated with
exposure to 1-methylnaphthalene. At the present time the mechanism whereby naphthalene produces benign respiratory tract tumors
are not fully understood, but are hypothesized to involve oxygenated reactive metabolites
produced via the cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase system. However, based on the many
negative results obtained in genotoxicity tests, a genotoxic mechanism appears unlikely.
HUMAN CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Available data are inadequate to establish a causal
association between exposure to naphthalene and
cancer in humans. Adequately scaled epidemiological studies designed to examine a possible
association between naphthalene exposure and
cancer were not located. Overall, no data are available to evaluate the carcinogenic
potential in exposed human populations.
Human Toxicity Excerpts:
Symptomatology: A. Surface contact: 1. Naphthalene
cataracts and ocular irritation. 2. skin irritation and, in the case of a sensitized
person, severe dermatitis. Lesions clear spontaneously, as soon as the exposure is
terminated. 3. Percutaneous absorption ... inadequate to produce acute systemic reactions
except in newborns. B. Inhalation of vapor: 1. Headache, confusion, and excitement. 2.
Nausea and sometimes vomiting, and extensive sweating. 3. Dysuria, hematuria, & the
acute hemolytic reaction described below. 4. Rarely optic neuritis is encountered.
Symptomatology: C. Ingestion: 1. Abdominal cramps with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
2. Headache, profuse perspiration, listlessness, confusion. 3. In severe poisoning, coma
with or without convulsions. 4. Irritation of the urinary bladder ... Signs &
symptoms: urgency, dysuria, & the passage of a brown or black urine with or without
albumin & casts. ... 5. Acute intravascular hemolysis is the most characteristic sign.
... It begins on the 3rd day & is accompanied by anemia, leukocytosis, fever,
hemoglobinuria, jaundice, renal insufficiency, and sometimes, disturbances in liver
function. 6. In the absence of adequate supportive treatment, death may result from acute
renal failure in adults or kernicterus in young infants.
Naphthalene ingestion or inhalation can
result in massive hemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient subjects;
hemolysis in normal individuals occurs only with exposure to very high levels.
Rare cases of corneal epithelium damage in humans have been reported.
Conjunctivitis, swelling of parotid glands, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, tenesmus, and
lenticular opacities in peripheral portions.
Six cases of malignant tumors occurred among 15 workers exposed to vapors of naphthalene and coal tar for a period of up to 32
years at a coal tar naphthalene production
facility: 4 individuals contracted laryngeal carcinoma and all were smokers; the other 2
workers developed neoplasms of the pylorus and cecum. No control group was examined.
A 36 yr old pharmacist was given 5 g of unpurified naphthalene
in an emulsion of castor oil in divided doses in the course of thirteen hr. On awakening
eight to nine hr later he had severe pain in the bladder, and found that he was nearly
blind, although previously he had had good vision. ... A yr later /examination showed/ the
vision to be reduced to finger counting at 1.5 meters, unimproved by glasses, & the
visual fields were constricted to 30-50 degrees. In both lenses were seen countless fine
whitish opacities arranged as a zonular cataract about the nucleus with a narrow clear
zone at the equator. ... Fundi could not be seen clearly ... the retinas appeared pale and
turbid, the vessels were narrowed, ... the temporal portions of the papillas seemed pale.
A 69 yr old black female exposed to naphthalene
and paradichlorobenzene developed aplastic anemia two months after exposure.
POISONING MAY OCCUR BY INGESTION OF LARGE DOSES, INHALATION, OR SKIN ABSORPTION.
Toxicity and death /have been reported/ in newborn infants exposed to naphthalene
vapors from clothes or blankets that had been stored in or near the infant's room.
The development of cataracts and retinal hemorrhage in a 44 yr old man occupationally
exposed to powdered naphthalene /were reported/.
Unilateral chorioretinitis /developed/ in a coworker. ... /Cataracts developed/ in 8/21
workers exposed to naphthalene fumes or dust for
< or = 5 years in a manufacturing setting.
Toxic effects in infants have been associated with naphthalene
exposure (level not reported) of the mother during gestation.
Hemolysis following accidental ingestion of naphthalene
in black females deficient in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase has not been previously
reported. A 20 mo old black female is presented and the literature reviewed. Although
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency is X-linked, health care providers must be
aware that hemolysis may occur in females who are deficient in glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase after exposure to naphthalene.
Diapers or clothes stored with mothballs and used directly on infants have caused skin
rashes and systemic poisoning.
Human Toxicity Values:
A fatal /human/ dose from oral exposure /was reported/ to be approximately 2 g.
Skin, Eye and Respiratory Irritations:
Irritating to skin ... does occur. Vapors can cause eye irritation at concn of 15 ppm
in air. ...
Upon direct skin contact, naphthalene is a
primary irritant.
Medical Surveillance:
Physical examinations of exposed personnel annually, with special attention to the
eyes, complete blood count, and urinalysis.
Recommended medical surveillance: The following medical procedures should be made
available to each employee who is exposed to naphthalene
at potentially hazardous levels: Initial Medical Examination: A complete history and
physical examination: The purpose is to detect existing conditions ... that might place
the exposed employee at increased risk, and to establish a baseline for future health
monitoring. Examination of the eyes, blood, liver, and kidneys should be stressed. The
skin should be examined for evidence of chronic disorders. Naphthalene
has been shown to cause red cell hemolysis. A complete blood count should be performed,
including a red cell count, white cell count, and a differential count of a stained smear,
as well as hemoglobin and hematocrit. ... A urinalysis should be performed, including at a
minimum: specific gravity, albumin, glucose, and a microscopic /examination/ on
centrifuged sediment. Periodic Medical Examination: The aforementioned medical
examinations should be repeated on an annual basis.
Populations at Special Risk:
Individuals with glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase deficiency would be susceptible to
hemolytic anemia /induced by naphthalene/.
/Protect/ from exposure individuals with diseases of the blood, liver, and kidneys.
Pregnant women may be especially susceptible to exposure effects associated with coal
tar pitch volatiles. /Coal tar pitch volatiles/
Persons with existing skin disorders may be more susceptible to the effects of /coal
tar pitch volatiles/. /Coal tar pitch volatiles/
Probable Routes of Human Exposure:
Coal tar pitch volatiles ... may contact the eyes. /Coal tar pitch volatiles/
Exposure of up to 220 ppm (vapor) and 4.4 ug/cu m (particulates) are possible in
industrial situations(1). Naphthalene exposed
workers include those who make beta naphthol, celluloid, dye chemicals, fungicide,
hydronaphthalene, lampblack, phthalic anhydride, smokeless powder as well as those who
work with/in coal tar, moth repellants, tanneries, textile chemicals, aluminum reduction
plants(1). Air levels of naphthalene in an
aluminum reduction plant - 0.72-311.3 ug/cu m (0.1-59.5 ppb)(vapor), 0.090-4.00 ug/cu m
(particulate); coke oven 11.35-1,120 ug/cu m (2-214 ppb)(vapor), 0-4.40 ug/cu m
(particulate)(1). Air conc in different work areas of silcon carbide plant - 1.3 - 58
ug/cu m(2). Results of field trials on average exposure to particulate (vapor phase) naphthalene in specified operation in certain
industries in ug/cu m: paving/ roofing/ steel/ silicon carbide 11.43 (0.08); refractory
brick 16.30 (-); silicon carbide 75.40 (0.01); aluminum refinery 1111.4 (0.52)(3). NIOSH
(NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 23,092 workers may be exposed to naphthalene in the USA(4).
Individuals with potential exposure to naphthalene
include: beta-naphthol makers; celluloid makers; coal tar workers; dye chemical makers;
fungicide makers; hydronaphthalene makers; lampblack makers; moth repellant workers;
phthalic anhydride makers; smokeless powder makers; tannery workers; textile chemical
workers; aluminum reduction plant workers. /From table/
Perhaps the greatest hazard to the worker is the potential for operating or maintenance
personnel to be accidentally splashed with hot molten naphthalene
while taking samples or disassembling process lines.
Humans are primarily exposed to naphthalene
from ambient air particularly in areas with heavy traffic, near petroleum refineries, coal
tar distillation facilities or where evaporative losses from the storage, transport,
transfer or disposal of fuel oil occurs. Another source of exposure is from tobacco smoke.
Although data is scanty, moderate exposure may occur from some supplies of drinking water.
(SRC)
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (PAH) CONTENT IN AIR OF 10 FERROUS & NONFERROUS
FOUNDRIES WAS STUDIED. CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS REPORTED TO HAVE A HIGH RISK OF LUNG CANCER,
SUCH AS MOLDERS, CASTERS & CRANE MEN, WERE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF PAH
EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE. THIS RESULT WAS NOT STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT.
GLASS CAPILLARY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY SHOWED THAT WORKERS IN COKE PLANT WERE EXPOSED TO 5
TO 1000 MG POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH)/CU M AIR (INCL ACENAPHTHYLENE).
PARTICULATE MATTER CONTAINS 98% RESPIRABLE PAH.
Workers ... exposed to coal tar, mineral oil, and petroleum waxes. /Polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons/
Body Burden:
Mother's milk from 4 USA urban areas - detected in 6 of 8 samples positive(1).
HUMAN ADIPOSE TISSUE CONCENTRATIONS: A National Human Adipose Tissue Survey (NHATS) by
EPA for fiscal year 1982 detected naphthalene in
wet adipose tissue with a frequency of 40% and conc range <9 ppb - 63 ppb(1).
Average Daily Intake:
AIR INTAKE: (assume 0.18 ppb vapor) 19 ug; WATER INTAKE: (assume 0.001-2 ppb) 0.002-4
ug(SRC).
Emergency Medical Treatment:
Emergency Medical Treatment:
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reference. THE COMPLETE POISINDEX(R) DATABASE, AVAILABLE FROM MICROMEDEX, SHOULD BE
CONSULTED FOR ASSISTANCE IN THE DIAGNOSIS OR TREATMENT OF SPECIFIC CASES. Copyright
1974-1998 Micromedex, Inc. Denver, Colorado. All Rights Reserved. Any duplication,
replication or redistribution of all or part of the POISINDEX(R) database is a violation
of Micromedex' copyrights and is strictly prohibited. The following Overview, *** NAPHTHALENE ***, is relevant for this HSDB record chemical. |
| Life Support: |
o This overview assumes that basic life support measures
have been instituted.
|
| Clinical Effects: |
SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
0.2.1.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Headache, restlessness, lethargy, vomiting, anorexia,
hemolysis, methemoglobinemia, hyperkalemia, fever,
anemia, and acute renal failure are possible. Seizures
and coma may develop in severe intoxications.
o Intoxication is most common following ingestion, but
can occur after dermal or inhalational exposure.
o Infants and patients with G-6-PD deficiency, sickle
cell anemia, or sickle trait are more likely to develop
hemolysis and methemoglobinemia.
o EYE EXPOSURE - Naphthalene is an eye irritant. The
vapor causes eye irritation at airborne concentrations
of 15 ppm. Eye contact with the solid material may
result in conjunctivitis, superficial injury to the
cornea, diminished visual acuity, and other effects.
It may cause cataracts.
o DERMAL - Naphthalene skin exposure may cause
hypersensitivity dermatitis. Chronic dermatitis is
rare.
VITAL SIGNS
0.2.3.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Tachycardia may develop if hemolysis occurs.
Hypotension and shock are rare, but may occur in
patients with severe toxicity.
HEENT
0.2.4.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Facial flushing may occur. Ocular effects from chronic
exposure include optic neuritis, lens opacities, and
chorioretinitis.
CARDIOVASCULAR
0.2.5.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Tachycardia and flow murmurs secondary to acute
hemolytic anemia have been reported. Dysrhythmias
secondary to hyperkalemia from acute hemolysis and
renal failure have been reported in cases of severe
poisoning. Cardiovascular shock can occur in patients
with severe hemolytic anemia.
RESPIRATORY
0.2.6.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Respiratory distress, respiratory failure, and
pulmonary edema have been infrequently reported.
NEUROLOGIC
0.2.7.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Headache, restlessness, and lethargy may occur.
o Seizures and coma have been rarely reported in patients
with severe toxicity.
GASTROINTESTINAL
0.2.8.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and
anorexia may occur up to 48 hours following acute
ingestion. Nausea may also occur after inhalation
exposure.
HEPATIC
0.2.9.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hepatomegaly and jaundice are uncommon.
Hyperbilirubinemia and fatal kernicterus may occur in
newborns with significant hemolysis. Centrilobular
necrosis was seen in one pediatric poisoning case.
GENITOURINARY
0.2.10.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hemolysis may cause acute tubular necrosis and
hemoglobinuria. Dysuria, urgency, and dark brown or
red colored urine may develop.
FLUID-ELECTROLYTE
0.2.12.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hyperkalemia may occur following significant hemolysis.
Hyperphosphatemia and mild hypocalcemia were reported
in one case.
HEMATOLOGIC
0.2.13.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Severe hemolytic anemia has been reported 1 to 3 days
following acute exposure, more commonly in infants and
in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G-6-PD) deficiency, sickle cell anemia, or sickle
trait. Methemoglobinemia has also been reported, as
has one case of aplastic anemia.
DERMATOLOGIC
0.2.14.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Erythema and dermatitis are hypersensitivity reactions.
One case of exfoliative contact dermatitis has been
reported. Anemia may result in pallor.
REPRODUCTIVE HAZARDS
o Hemolytic anemia has developed in neonates following in
utero exposure. In utero exposure causes cataracts in
rats.
CARCINOGENICITY
0.2.21.2 HUMAN OVERVIEW
o Naphthalene and coal tar exposure have been associated
with laryngeal and intestinal carcinoma.
|
| Laboratory: |
o Obtain baseline CBC, electrolytes, glucose-6-phosphatase
dehydrogenase level, liver and renal function tests,
urinalysis and urine dipstick test for hemoglobinuria.
o Measurement of urinary metabolites (1-naphthol or
mercapturic acid) may help confirm the diagnosis. Urinary
naphthol levels may be utilized to monitor industrial
creosote exposure (naphthalene is the most abundant
compound found in creosote vapor).
o Abdominal radiographs may help differentiate between
mothballs or other products which contain
paradichlorobenzene (densely radiopaque) from those which
contain naphthalene (radiolucent or faintly radiopaque).
|
| Treatment Overview: |
ORAL EXPOSURE
o Induced emesis is more useful for mothballs because of
size. Gastric lavage may be useful for ingestion of
flakes, but its effectiveness may be limited to
naphthalene's poor water solubility. Information on
activated charcoal is scant, but adsorption is thought
to occur. Mothballs dissolve slowly; gastric
decontamination should be considered even in patients
presenting late after ingestion.
o EMESIS: Use is controversial. May be indicated in the
prehospital setting if administered soon (within 30
minutes) after substantial ingestion.
CONTRAINDICATIONS: loss of airway protective reflexes;
CNS depression; seizures; ingestion of a substance that
might impair airway protective reflexes or require
advanced life support within 60 minutes; ingestion of a
corrosive substance or hydrocarbon with high aspiration
potential; debilitated patient. (Dose of Ipecac Syrup:
ADULT: 15 - 30 mL; CHILD 1 to 12 years: 15 mL; CHILD 6
to 12 months of age: 5 - 10 mL; CHILD under 6 months of
age: Not recommended for prehospital use.).
o GASTRIC LAVAGE: Consider after ingestion of a
potentially life-threatening amount of poison if it can
be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 1
hour). Protect airway by placement in Trendelenburg and
left lateral decubitus position or by endotracheal
intubation. Control any seizures first.
1. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Loss of airway protective reflexes
or decreased level of consciousness in unintubated
patients; following ingestion of corrosives;
hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential); patients at
risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation; and
trivial or non-toxic ingestion.
o ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as slurry (240
mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in
adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12
years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
o SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine IV; DIAZEPAM
(ADULT: 5 to 10 mg, repeat every 10 to 15 min as
needed. CHILD: 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg, repeat every 5 min
as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 4 to 8 mg; CHILD: 0.05
to 0.1 mg/kg).
1. Consider phenobarbital if seizures recur after diazepam
30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children > 5 years).
2. Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory
depression, and need for endotracheal intubation.
Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances,
hypoxia.
o URINARY ALKALINIZATION - If hemolysis occurs, urine
alkalinization with intravenous sodium bicarbonate
infusion (maintaining a urine pH of 7 to 8) may help to
avoid renal injury.
2. URINE ALKALINIZATION
a. Administer 88 to 132 mEq/L sodium bicarbonate and 20
to 40 mEq KCL (as needed) in dextrose 5% in water to
produce a urine pH of at least 7.5 and a urine output
fo 1 to 3 mL/kg/hr.
b. Assure adequate hydration and renal function. Monitor
fluid balance, serum electrolytes, and blood pH.
Obtain hourly intake/output and urine pH.
o METHEMOGLOBINEMIA: Administer 1 to 2 mg/kg of 1%
methylene blue slowly IV in symptomatic patients.
Additional doses may be required.
INHALATION EXPOSURE
o INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for
respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing
develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation,
bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and
assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with
beta2 agonist and corticosteroid aerosols.
o Treatment should include recommendations listed in the
ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.
EYE EXPOSURE
o DECONTAMINATION: Irrigate exposed eyes with copious
amounts of tepid water for at least 15 minutes. If
irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia
persist, the patient should be seen in a health care
facility.
DERMAL EXPOSURE
o DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash
exposed area thoroughly with soap and water. A
physician may need to examine the area if irritation or
pain persists.
|
| Range of Toxicity: |
o Less than one naphthalene mothball (200 to 500 milligrams)
may cause hemolysis, especially in G-6-PD deficient
children.
o The LDLo for a child via oral exposure is 100 mg/kg based
on RTECS data.
o Exposure to airborne concentrations of 15 ppm may cause
eye irritation.
|
Antidote and Emergency Treatment:
Gastric lavage (stomach wash), if swallowed, followed by saline catharsis. Maintain an
alkaline urine. Blood transfusion if indicated.
Animal Toxicity Studies:
Evidence for Carcinogenicity:
WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE CHARACTERIZATION: Using criteria of the 1986 Guidelines for
Carcinogen Risk Assessment, naphthalene is
classified in group C, a possible human carcinogen. This is based on the inadequate data
of carcinogenicity in humans exposed to naphthalene
via the oral and inhalation routes, and the limited evidence of carcinogenicity in animals
via the inhalation route. Using the 1996 Proposed Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk
Assessment, the human carcinogenic potential of naphthalene
via the oral or inhalation routes "cannot be determined" at this time based on
human and animal data; however, there is suggestive evidence (observations of benign
respiratory tumors and one carcinoma in female mice only exposed to naphthalene
by inhalation). Additional support includes increase in respiratory tumors associated with
exposure to 1-methylnaphthalene. At the present time the mechanism whereby naphthalene produces benign respiratory tract tumors
are not fully understood, but are hypothesized to involve oxygenated reactive metabolites
produced via the cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase system. However, based on the many
negative results obtained in genotoxicity tests, a genotoxic mechanism appears unlikely.
HUMAN CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Available data are inadequate to establish a causal
association between exposure to naphthalene and
cancer in humans. Adequately scaled epidemiological studies designed to examine a possible
association between naphthalene exposure and
cancer were not located. Overall, no data are available to evaluate the carcinogenic
potential in exposed human populations.
Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts:
ORAL ADMIN OF 1 G/KG/DAY TO RABBITS LEADS TO LENTICULAR CHANGES, INITIALLY OBSERVED AS
SWELLING IN PERIPHERAL PORTION OF LENS. ... WITHIN 2 WK THE WHOLE LENS IS AFFECTED WITH
MATURE CATARACT. ... BIOCHEMICAL BASIS FOR CATARACT ... SHOWN TO BE RELATED TO LIVER
METABOLITE OF NAPHTHALENE,
1,2-DIHYDRO-1,2-DIHYDROXYNAPHTHALENE.
SELECTIVE LUNG DAMAGE & NECROSIS OCCURRED IN CLARA CELLS OF MOUSE ADMIN NAPHTHALENE. IT PRODUCED SELECTIVE DEPRESSION OF
PULMONARY MONOOXYGENASE ACTIVITIES WITHOUT ACCOMPANYING CHANGES IN HEPATIC MONOOXYGENASE.
A DOSE-DEPENDENT ALTERATION OF CLARA CELLS WAS NOTED.
AFTER ORAL ADMIN OF NAPHTHALENE FOR 10 DAYS
TO RATS BIOCHEMICAL ALTERATIONS OCCURRED. CHANGES WERE SIGNIFICANT IN THE LIVER WHERE INCR
IN LIVER WT, LIPID PEROXIDATION & ANILINE HYDROXYLASE ACTIVITY WERE NOTED.
THE CRAB CHANGED ANTENNULAR ORIENTATION & FLICKING RATE, WHEN PRESENTED WITH NAPHTHALENE OR WATER SOL FRACTIONS OF CRUDE OIL.
DECR IN CELLULAR MANGANESE & POTASSIUM WAS FOUND WITHIN A VERY SHORT TIME OF
EXPOSURE TO NAPHTHALENE & AQ EXTRACTS OF
CRUDE OIL IN CHLAMYDOMONAS ANGULOSA. THIS MAY BE DUE TO HYDROCARBON-INDUCED MEMBRANE
DAMAGE.
ENZYME ACTIVITIES OF LIVER MICROSOMAL PREPN FROM SEAWATER ADAPTED MALLARD DUCKS EXPOSED
50 DAYS TO CRUDE OIL (5 TYPES) CONTAMINATED FOOD ASSESSED IN TERM OF THEIR ABILITY IN
VITRO TO METAB NAPHTHALENE. A DOSE-DEPENDENT
INCR IN ACTIVITY NOTED WITH 3 PATTERNS OF RESPONSE APPARENT.
LARVAL MUD CRABS WERE EXPOSED CONTINUOUSLY FROM HATCHING THROUGH 1ST STAGE TO SUBLETHAL
CONCN OF NAPHTHALENE (0, 75, 150 OR 300 MUG/L).
SALINITY & TEMPERATURE WERE VARIED. AT OPTIMAL SALINITY NO CONSISTENT EFFECT OF NAPHTHALENE ON GROWTH WAS APPARENT.
No carcinogenic activity was observed in an in vitro rat embryo cell/Rauscher leukemia
virus test system at doses up to 0.1 g/l.
225 Mg/kg ip injection of naphthalene to
C57BL/6J mice produced significant (30-70%) and prolonged (8-15 days) impairment in
pulmonary microsomal monooxygenase activities without altering these activities in liver
microsomes.
Naphthalene (0.05-2.0 mmol/kg) was
administered in corn oil ip to C57B1/6J mice. Lung tissue from interim sacrificed animals
was rapidly fixed and examined by electron microscopy. Mice in the higher dosage groups
developed necrosis of secretory nonciliated bronchiolar cells. Epithelial structure
returned to normal within seven days in all cases. No changes were noted in either
untreated or corn oil-treated control group.
... Exposure of the 4th instar larvae of the freshwater dipteran Chironomus attenuatus
to 1 mg/l for 1 hr resulted in ... the loss of ionic regulation. ... /This was/ due to
inhibition of specific enzyme systems and not to a general alteration of membrane
integrity.
Ip injection of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) with 100 ug benzo(a)pyrene,
Aroclor 1254, or naphthalene, singly and in
combinations, affected the levels of the brain neurotransmitters norepinephrine, dopamine,
and 5-hydroxytryptamine, but the effect showed no discernible pattern. The effects of
combinations of the chemicals did not appear to be predictable from the effects of
individual chemicals. In several instances, the change in the level of neurotransmitter in
fish receiving a combination of chemicals was greater than in fish receiving either
chemical alone.
SELECTIVELY PHYTOTOXIC ...
Pregnant rabbits were gavaged with 16 mg/kg of metabolite of naphthalene
on days 20, 22, and 24 of gestation. Cataracts and retinal damage were found in the
offspring.
Detoxification of naphthalene in rabbits by
conjugation with glucuronic acid may have a protective influence against development of naphthalene cataract.
Inhibition of photosynthesis of a freshwater, non-axenic unialgal culture of
Selenastrum capricornutum at: 1% saturation: 110% (14)C fixation (vs controls); 10%
saturation: 89% (14)C fixation (vs controls); 100% saturation: 15% (14)C fixation (vs
controls).
The toxic effect of aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, naphthalene,
1-methylnaphthalene, anthracene, 9-methylanthracene, phenanthrene, on the productivity of
various marine planktonic algae (Dunaliela biocula, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and
Isochysis galbaya) increased with increasing number of aromatic rings. The methylated
compounds were most toxic. Taxonomic differences in sensitivity to aromatic hydrocarbons
/was investigated/.
The effect of 10 organic chemicals on the growth and reproduction of the marine red
alga was investigated. The test measured vegetative growth, formation of tetrasporangia
(site of meiosis-asexual spore production), and production of cystocarps (evidence of
sexual reproduction). The procedure was used to test the effects of ... naphthalene.
Chronic values were determined for vegetative growth and formation of reproductive
structures based on significant decreases from control levels. Absence of reproductive
structures was also used to determine chronic values. No endpoint was consistently more
sensitive than any other, and the ranking of the compounds from most to least toxic was
similar regardless of the endpoint used.
Following the intraperitoneal administration of naphthalene
(200 mg/kg) to mice, the lung, in comparison with other organs, was selectively damaged.
Histological examination of the lung showed that it was the non-ciliated, bronchiolar
epithelial cells (Clara cells) which were damaged. At higher doses (400 mg/kg and 600
mg/kg, ip), there was also damage to the cells in the proximal tubules of the kidney. In
contrast to the effect in mice, doses of naphthalene
as high as 1600 mg/kg (ip) caused no detectable pulmonary or renal damage in the rat. This
difference in toxicity between the mouse and rat was reflected by the ability of naphthalene to more severely deplete the non-protein
sulfhydryls in the mouse lung and kidney than in the rat. In order to investigate the
species difference in toxicity, the metabolism of naphthalene
by lung and liver microsomes of the mouse and rat was studied. In all cases, naphthalene was metabolized to a covalently bound
product(s) and to two major methanol-soluble products, which co-chromatographed with
1-naphthol and 1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene. However, both the covalent binding
and metabolism were approximately 10-fold greater in microsomes prepared from mouse lung
compared with those from the rat.
The effect of exposure to naphthalene and
aqueous extracts of crude oil on contents of manganese and potassium in cells of
Chlamydomonas angulosa was measured simultaneously by neutron activation analysis.
The mutagenic activity from Cunninghamella elegans incubated 72 hr with various
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons was evaluated in the Salmonella typhimurium reversion
assay. All of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons extracts were assayed in tester strains
TA98 and TA100 both with and without metabolic activation using a liver fraction from
Aroclor 1254 treated rats. None of the extracts from fungal incubations with the mutagenic
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ... naphthalene,
... displayed any appreciable mutagenic activity ...
Naphthalene was tested for mutagenicity in
the Salmonella/microsome preincubation assay using the standard protocol approved by the
National Toxicology Program. Naphthalene was
tested at doses of 0.3, 1.0, 3.3, 10, 33, and 100 ug/plate in as many as 5 Salmonella
typhimurium strains (TA1535, TA1537, TA97, TA98, and TA100) in the presence and absence of
rat or hamster liver S-9. Naphthalene was
negative in these tests and the highest ineffective dose tested in any S. typhimurium
strain was 100 ug/plate. Slight clearing of the background bacterial lawn occurred at /the
highest/ dose in some cultures.
Necropsy findings /in Sprague Dawley rats/ (study deaths): Multiple lesions of the
stomach mucosa; and discolored lungs, adrenals, and intestines.
/Dermal sensitization/ study /was/ conducted /in Hartley guinea pigs/. ... Results:
Induced and challenged at 100%. Challenge scores: incidence = 0/20; severity = 0.0 @ 48
hours. Naphthalene is considered to be
non-sensitizing.
/Dogs/ administered 420 and 1530 mg/kg naphthalene
(in a solid form) in a single oral dose /showed/ decreases of 29 and 33%, respectively, in
blood hemoglobin concentrations.
Short-term exposure: Adverse effects, associated ... with 267 mg/kg/day /for 14 days/
included increased mortality and decreased terminal body weights in male and female /CD-1/
mice, decreased absolute thymus weight (30%) in males, and increased bilirubin and
decreased absolute and relative spleen and lung weights in females. There were no effects
on hexobarbital sleeping time or on various immunological screening tests, with the
exception that high-dose females had decreased response to concanavalin A in lymphocytes.
A NOAEL of 53 mg/kg was identified.
A NOAEL /in F344 rats/ was observed to be 50 mg/kg /5 days/week for 13 weeks by
gavage/.
A NOAEL /in B6C3F1 mice/ of 200 mg/kg/day /5 days /week for 13 weeks by gavage/ was ...
identified.
A NOAEL /in BDI and BDIII rats/ was found to be 41 mg/kg/day (10 g/0.35 kg/700 days
assuming a body weight of 0.35 kg). /Naphthalene
was administered in the diet/.
Treatment /of mated female CD-1 mice with 300 mg/kg/day of naphthalene
by gavage/ began on gestation day 7 and continued for 8 consecutive days. Vehicle (corn
oil) treated controls were maintained. Treatment was associated with maternal toxicity
(increased mortality and reduced body weight gain) and fetotoxicity manifested as a
reduced number of live young at birth. ... Offspring were not examined for malformations.
... There was no evidence of fetal or maternal toxicity /after ip administration of 395
mg/kg naphthalene to adult female Sprague Dawley
rats/.
The administration to pregnant rabbits of 2-naphthol, a metabolite of naphthalene,
has been associated with cataracts and evidence of retinal damage in the offspring.
Naphthalene was not active in reverse
mutation assays in ... Salmonella typhimurium with or without metabolic activation. Naphthalene was also not mutagenic in a Salmonella
forward mutation assay with TM677. Negative results were reported for the Rec
/Recombinational DNA Repair/ assay in Escherichia coli in the presence or absence of an
exogenous mammalian metabolism system. ... No enhancement of /cell/ transformation was
observed /in rat and mouse embryo cells infected with leukemia virus or in murine mammary
gland organ cultures/.
Naphthalene did not cause DNA damage in a rat
hepatocyte alkaline elution assay.
No carcinogenic response was observed ... in rats given oral doses of 10 to 20 mg/day naphthalene, 6 days/week from day 100 to day 800 of
age, or in rats given either sc or ip injections of 20 mg naphthalene,
1 day/week for 40 weeks, and observed for the remainder of their lives.
Increased incidence of lymphosarcomas /was reported/ in rats injected with 500 mg/kg
coal tar naphthalene in sesame oil every 2 weeks
for seven treatments; however, the injection site was painted with a carcinogen
(carbolfuchsin) and the naphthalene was known to
contain impurities. In another study, ... an increased incidence of lympathic leukemia
/was reported in mice painted with a 0.5% solution of coal tar naphthalene
in benzene/.
In a pulmonary adenoma induction test, inhalation of 0, 10 or 30 ppm (0, 52, 157 mg/cu
m) naphthalene by groups of 30 female strain A/J
mice (6 to 8 weeks old) for 6 hours/day, 5 days/week for 6 months, did not produce a
significant adenoma response.
The glutathione conjugate (14)C-propachlor was perfusd through a calf kidney in situ;
23% of the dose was excreted in the perfused kidney urine as the cysteine conjugate, no
mercapturic acid was detected. A 5 day old calf dosed orally with (14)C-propachlor
excreted 70% dose in the urine as the cysteine conjugate; no mercapturic acid was
detected. Rumen microflora were established in the calf (5 weeks older) and the experiment
was repeated with the same results. When the same calf was dosed 1 week later with (14)C-naphthalene, 99% dose was excreted in the urine,
mostly as the dihydrodiol glucuronide (34%) and the dihydrohydroxy cysteine conjugate
(47%); no mercapturate was detected. A 9 day old calf dosed orally with (14)C-
dichlobenil) excreted 67% dose in the urine as cysteine conjugates (34%), and products of
cysteine conjugate beta-lyase cleavage of cysteine conjugates (30%); no mercapturates were
detected. Cysteine S-conjugate N-acetyltransferase activity in calf kidney and liver was
about 10% of that in the corresponding rat tissues.
It was noted that although data on the metabolism of 70 xenobiotic compounds in fish
and enzyme activities in 80 fish exist, there are very few data that enable one to predict
the metabolism of a given compound from a knowledge of enzyme activity. Existing data on
the rates of metabolism of xenobiotic compounds in fish were reviewed. Only five studies
that relate metabolism reactions to enzyme activity existed: the oxidation of
benzo(a)pyrene, fenitrothion, carbaryl, and naphthalene,
and the glucuronidation of phenol. These have shown that in a few cases the metabolic
rates can be correlated with enzyme activity. For example, in some fish the rates of
oxidation of benzo(a)pyrene, fenitrothion, and carbaryl can be correlated with increases
in aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity. This correlation was not seen in studies of the
rates of oxidation of naphthalene. The /data
suggest/ that there are very few data that relate in vivo metabolism rates of xenobiotic
compounds in fish to the in vivo enzyme activity. In many cases where such data exist the
in vivo metabolism data do not correlate well with the enzyme activity data. Additional
studies that focus on identifying the role of steric hinderance in metabolism reactions,
identifying which enzymes catalyze a given reaction, and evaluating the roles of
nonhepatic organs in in vivo metabolism should be conducted.
Naphthalene produces selective injury to
Clara cells in the mouse in vivo and in the isolated perfused lung. To investigate the
role of circulating reactive metabolites in lung injury, the stability, metabolism and
cytotoxicity of naphthalene oxide, a reactive
intermediate, were examined in the perfused mouse lung. The t1/2 of naphthalene
oxide is 4 min in Waymouth's medium. Addition of 5% bovine serum albumin of the medium
increased the half-life of the epoxide to 11 min. Perfusion of the lung with 0.2 or 2 umol
of naphthalene oxide decreased pulmonary reduced
glutathione levels of 62 and 42% of control, respectively. 1,4-Naphthoquinone and naphthol
glucuronide represented 36 and 25% of the total polar metabolites isolated after infusion
of naphthalene oxide, whereas dihydrodiol and
thioether conjugates were minor metabolites. In comparison, thioethers and dihydrodiol
were the primary metabolites isolated from lungs perfused with (14)C naphthalene.
Histologic examination of the lungs fixed 4 hr after infusion of naphthalene
oxide (0.25-1.0 umol/60 min) revealed selective vacuolation and necrosis of Clara cells,
significant decreases in the mass of bronchiolar Clara cells and increases in the mass of
vacuolated cells. Injury to lungs perfused with naphthalene
or secondary metabolites such as naphthoquinones, 1-naphthol and 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene
was less dramatic. In contrast to other studies implicating quinones as mediators of
aromatic hydrocarbon toxicity, the current work suggests that epoxides play a significant
role in naphthalene-induced lung injury. This
investigation also demonstrates that circulating epoxides are capable of eliciting
selective Clara cell injury.
Pulmonary toxicities of naphthalene,
2-methylnaphthalene, 2-isopropylnaphthalene and 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene were studied in
mice. Twenty four hr after ip administration of naphthalene
(200 mg/kg (1.6 mmol)) or 2-methylnapthalene (400 mg/kg (2.8 mmol)), pulmonary damage was
detected. Prior treatment with diethyl maleate resulted in enhancement of naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene induced
bronchiolar damage. In contrast to the effects of naphthalene
and 2-methylnaphthalene, injections of 2-isopropylnaphthalene (3000 mg (17.6 mmol)/kg) and
2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene (3000 mg (14.2 mmol)/kg) did not cause detectable pulmonary
damage. Injections of naphthalene and
2-methylnaphthalene caused considerable depletion of pulmonary reduced glutathione, while
injections of 2-isopropylnaphthalene and 2,6-diisopropylnapthalene caused only a slight
depletion. There were general decreases in the binding of the compounds to lung slices
with increasing number of carbons of the alkyl substituent. Pretreatment with a cytochrome
p450 inducer (beta-naphthoflavone) increased the binding of naphthalene,
2-methylnaphthalene, and 2-isopropylnaphthalene to lung slices. Treatments with naphthalene, 2-methylnaphthalene,
2-isopropylnaphthalene and 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene did not affect the lipid
peroxidation or phospholipid contents in the lung. These results suggest that the
differences in pulmonary toxicity among naphthalene,
2-methylnaphthalene, 2-isopropylnaphthalene and 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene may be
dependent on the ability of these compounds to irreversibly bind to lung tissue.
Developmental toxicity and clastogenicity of naphthalene
/was compared/ within an in vitro preimplantation mouse embryo culture system. Whole mouse
embryos were collected 72 hr after conception and co-cultured in serum supplemented NCTC
109 medium containing 0.16 mM naphthalene.
Embryos were harvested and karyotyped as a function of time over 48 hr post treatment.
Chromosomal damage was greatest at 24 hr after exposure with a 10-fold incr observed in
embryos exposed to naphthalene compared to
untreated controls; a 30-fold incr in chromosomal damage was observed comparing untreated
controls with cultures containing naphthalene
& rodent hepatic S-9. These findings suggest that while naphthalene
is minimally embryotoxic in the absence of exogenous biotransformation it is clastogenic;
these observations indirectly indicate the presence of embryonic enzyme activity competent
to metabolically activate naphthalene. Further, naphthalene clastogenicity markedly decr at 48 hr
implicating the involvement of embryonic DNA repair.
The in vitro developmental toxicity of the bicyclic aromatic hydrocarbon naphthalene was characterized with a preimplantation
mouse embryo culture system. Day 3 ICR mouse blastocysts were co-cultured with naphthalene for 1 hr either alone or in media
supplemented with an Aroclor induced rat S-9 preparation and cofactors. Toxin treated
blastocysts were subsequently cultured in NCTC 109 media with 10% fetal bovine serum for
72 hr to observe the developmental effects of exposure. Developmental parameters observed
included viability, hatching, culture dish attachment and trophoblastic outgrowth with the
presence of a distinct inner cell mass. At media concentrations up to 0.78 mM, naphthalene alone exhibited negligible toxic effects
in culture; however naphthalene co-cultured with
Aroclor induced rat hepatic S-9 fractions exhibited concn dependent embryolethality with
an approximate LC50 of 0.18 mM in media. Naphthalene
also induced concn dependent embryotoxicity at all observed parameters in S-9 supplemental
media at concn ranging from 0.20 to 0.78 mM. These findings document the role of
biotransformation in naphthalene's
embryotoxicity to early mouse blastocysts and implicate naphthalene
as a potentially embryotoxic and abortifacient component polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
mixtures.
In vitro embryotoxic effects of naphthalene
/were monitored/ subsequent to in vivo exposure. Female ICR mice were injected on day 2 of
gestation with naphthalene ip at either 14 mg/kg
or 56 mg/kg. Embryos were collected on gestation day 3.5 and cultured in serum
supplemented NCTC 109 medium for 72 hr. Embryos were examined during culture for
viability, hatching, attachment and the presence of a distinct inner cell mass with
trophoblastic outgrowth. Maternal napthalene doses at levels below the naphthalene
LD50 inhibited the viability and implanation capability of fertilized embryos. Maternal
exposure to naphthalene at 56 mg/kg and 14 mg/kg
caused marked decreased in vitro attachment and embryonic growth; at the higher dose,
delays in development were observed within 48 hr of culture. These findings support
previous in vitro observations of naphthalene
embryotoxicity and confirm the prenatal toxicity of this compound subsequent to in vivo
exposure.
Maximum /dermal/ irritation score (erythema) was 2 (days 1 to 4); considered to be
slightly irritating. /Dermal scoring was according to Draize/. No edema was observed.
Slight fissuring of the skin was noted. All scores returned to normal by day 6.
Draize ocular irritation scores = 0 of 110 (rinsed) and 3.8/110 (unrinsed); considered
minimally irritating. All scores returned to normal by 72 hours.
National Toxicology Program Studies:
... The 2 yr studies were conducted by exposing groups of male and female B6C3F1 mice
to naphthalene (>99% pure) vapor for 6 hr day
for 5 days/wk, for 104 wk. ... Groups of male and female mice were exposed to atmospheres
containing 0 (75 mice per group), 10 (75 mice per group), or 30 ppm (150 mice per group)
napthalene. ... Under the conditions of these 2 yr inhalation studies, there was no
evidence of carcinogenic activity of naphthalene
in male B6C3F1 mice exposed to 10 or 30 ppm. There was some evidence of carcinogenic
activity of naphthalene in female B6C3F1 mice,
based on increased incidences of pulmonary alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas.
Non-Human Toxicity Values:
LD50 Sprague Dawley rat oral 2.6 g/kg
LD50 New Zealand White rabbit dermal >2.0 g/kg
LD50 Male CD-1 mouse gavage 533 mg/kg
LD50 Female CD-1 mouse gavage 710 mg/kg
LD50 Male Sherman rat oral 2200 mg/kg
LD50 Female Sherman rat oral 2400 mg/kg
Ecotoxicity Values:
TLm Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (pink salmon) 1.37 ppm/96 hr at 4 deg C; 1.84 ppm/96 hr at 8
deg C; 1.24 ppm/96 hr at 12 deg C /Static bioassay/
TLm Pandalus goniurus (shrimp) 2.16 ppm/96 hr at 4 deg C; 1.02 ppm/96 hr at 8 deg C;
0.971 ppm/96 hr at 12 deg C /Static bioassay/
LC50 Parhyale hawaiensis (amphipod) 15 ppm/24 hr open bowl; 6.5 ppm/24 hr closed bottle
in a static bioassay.
LC50 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 7.76 (7.39-8.14) mg/l 24 hr, wt 116 mg,
flow-through bioassay, dissolved oxygen 7.4 (4.6-8.8) mg/l, water hardness 44.9
(42.4-46.6) mg/l as CaCO3, pH 6.9-7.7, alkalinity 42.9 (39.6-61.4) mg/l CaCO3, temp: 26.4
+/- 1.4 deg C, Purity 98%
LC50 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 6.35 (5.95-6.77) mg/l 48 hr, wt 116 mg,
flow-through bioassay, dissolved oxygen 7.4 (4.6-8.8) mg/l, water hardness 44.9
(42.4-46.6) mg/l as CaCO3, pH 6.9-7.7, alkalinity 42.9 (39.6-61.4) mg/l CaCO3, temp: 26.4
+/- 1.4 deg C, Purity 98%
LC50 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 6.08 (5.74-6.44) mg/l 72 & 96 hr, wt 116
mg, flow-through bioassay, dissolved oxygen 7.4 (4.6-8.8) mg/l, water hardness 44.9
(42.4-46.6) mg/l as CaCO3, pH 6.9-7.7, alkalinity 42.9 (39.6-61.4) mg/l CaCO3, temp: 26.4
+/- 1.4 deg C, Purity 98%
Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics:
Metabolism/Metabolites:
... METABOLIZED VIA 1,2-EPOXIDE INTO 1,2-DIHYDRONAPHTHALENE-1,2-DIOL,
1,2-DIHYDRO-1-NAPHTHOL & N-ACETYL-S-(2-HYDROXY-1,2-DIHYDRONAPHTHYL)-CYSTEINE, WHICH
AFTER FURTHER METABOLISM ... EXCRETED IN URINE AS 1-NAPHTHYLMERCAPTURIC ACID ... &
CONJUGATES OF 1,2-DIHYDRONAPHTHALENE-1,2-DIOL ... 1-& 2-NAPHTHOLS, &
1,2-DIHYDROXYNAPHTHALENE.
... NAPHTHALENE 1,2-OXIDE IS INTERMEDIATE IN
MICROSOMAL HYDROXYLATION OF NAPHTHALENE.
... NAPHTHALENE ... & MONOHALOGENATED
BENZENES ARE METABOLIZED INTO MERCAPTURIC ACIDS, CONJUGATES IN WHICH N-ACETYLCYSTEINE
MOIETY REPLACES A HYDROGEN ATOM.
NAPHTHALENE YIELDS S-(1-NAPHTHYL)GLUTATHIONE
IN RABBIT. NAPHTHALENE YIELDS
S-(1-NAPHTHYL)GLUTATHIONE IN RAT, IN MOUSE & IN GUINEA PIGS. /FROM TABLE/
NAPHTHALENE YIELDS
CIS-1,2-DIHYDRO-1,2-DIHYDROXYNAPHTHALENE IN PSEUDOMONAS. /FROM TABLE/
FISH WERE EXPOSED TO ... NAPHTHALENE IN
SEDIMENT CONTAINING PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL. NAPHTHALENE
WAS METAB TO 1,2-DIHYDRO-1,2-DIHYDROXYNAPHTHALENE GLUCURONIDE.
Cunninghamella elegans (a filamentous fungus) is capable of oxidizing naphthalene
to trans-1,2-dihydroxy-1,2-dihydronaphthalene. Other metabolites were identified as
1-napthol, 2-napthol and 4-hydroxy-1-tetralone.
Ringed seals (Phoca hispida) were exposed experimentally to oil contamination by
feeding of a (14)C naphthalene crude oil in fish
for up to 4 days at a rate of 5 ml/day. Mixed function oxygenase activity, measured as
aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase in liver and kidney, was found to be induced; in particular,
/activity in the kidney was induced 3-fold/ mixed function oxygenase induction correlated
with a high degree of conversion of crude oil hydrocarbons to water-soluble metabolites.
Most of the radioactivity was found in the polar fraction of the plasma and urine.
Naphthalene is first metabolized by hepatic
mixed function oxidases to the epoxide, naphthalene-1,2-oxide.
The epoxide can be enzymatically converted into the dihydrodiol,
1,2-dihydroxy-1,2-dihydronaphthalene or conjugated with glutathione. The dihydrodiol can
then be conjugated to form a polar compound with glucuronic acid or sulfate or be further
dehydrogenated to form the highly reactive 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene. This too can be
enzymatically conjugated with sulfate or glucuronic acid or spontaneously oxidized to form
1,2-naphthoquinone.
The urinary excretion of mercapturic acids was considered as an indicator for human
exposure.
... In rabbits 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene ... is produced enzymatically and by
autoxidation, and /it is/ the metabolic intermediate responsible for naphthalene
cataractogenesis.
CONJUGATES OF GLUTATHIONE, CYSTEINYLGLYCINE & CYSTEINE, INTERMEDIATES IN FORMATION
OF MERCAPTURIC ACIDS, ARE EXCRETED, PARTICULARLY IN BILE, AS METABOLITES OF ... NAPHTHALENE. ...
In the presence of glutathione and glutathione transferases, microsomal fractions
prepared from fresh samples of human lung tissue obtained at resection metabolized naphthalene to naphthalene
dihydrodiol and 3 glutathione conjugates at easily measurable rates. Addition of varying
amounts of human lung microsomal protein markedly inhibited mouse liver
microsome-catalyzed naphthalene metabolism in
one sample but not the other. These studies suggest that there may be an inhibitor,
potential released during tissue homogenization, that makes measurement of human lung
xenobiotic metabolism difficult.
Naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene cause a
highly organo and species selective lesion of the pulmonary bronchiolar epithelium in
mice. Naphthalene but not 2-methylnaphthalene
induced pulmonary bronchiolar injury is blocked by prior administration of the cytochrome
p450 monooxygenase inhibitor piperonyl butoxide, thus suggesting that metabolism by enzyme
other than the p450 monooxygenases may be important in 2-methylnaphthalene induced injury.
Since many of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are metabolized by the prostaglandin
endoperoxide synthetase system and because detectable xenobiotic metabolizing activity has
been associated with the prostaglandin synathetases in the Clara cell, the studies
reported here were done to compare reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
versus arachidonate dependent metabolism of naphthalene
in vitro and to determine whether indomethacin, a potent inhibitor of prostaglandin
biosythesis, was capable of blocking the in vivo toxicity of these two aromatic
hydrocarbons. The NADPH-dependent metabolism of naphthalene
and 2-methylnaphthalene to covalently bound metabolites in lung or liver microsomal
incubations occurred at easily measurable rates. Renal microsomal NADPH-dependent
metabolism of either substrate was not detected. The formation of covalently bound naphthalene or 2-methylnaphthalene metabolites was
dependent upon NADPH and was inhibited by the addition of reduced glutathione, piperonyl
butoxide, and SKF-525A. Covalent binding of radioactivity from (14)C 2-methylnaphthalene
also was strongly inhibited by incubation in a nitrogen atmosphere . ... The arachidonic
acid-dependent formation of reactive metabolites from naphthalene
or 2-methylnaphthalene was undetectable in microsomal incubations from lung, liver or
kidney. Indomethacin, 1 hr before and 6 hr after the administration of 300 mg/kg naphthalene or 2-methylnaphthalene, failed to block
the pulmonary bronchiolar injury induced by these organisms. These studies suggest that
the major enzymes involved in the metabolic activation of naphthalene
or 2-methylnaphthalene in vitro are cytochrome p450 monooxygenases and that cooxidative
metabolism by the prostaglandin synthetases appears to play little role in the formation
of reactive metabolites in vitro.
In an experimental animal study, doses of naphthalene
ranging from 1 ug to 1 g were administered in the feed to 3 young pigs and their urine was
collected in 2 sequential 24 hr specimens. The major urinary metabolite, conjugated
1-naphthol, was separated by gas chromatography and detected by electron capture. Most
1-naphthol excretion occurred during the first 24 hr period following dosing. Metabolic
1-naphthol could be detected after administration of as little as 100 ug naphthalene.
A linear relationship was observed between urinary 1-naphthol and oral dose (both
expressed on the log scale) in 24 hr specimen (r squared = 0.961, p<0.05) and 48 hr
specimens (r squared = 0.906, p<0.05).
In vitro studies of naphthalene indicate that
oxidation to the epoxide, naphthalene 1,2-oxide,
is the initial biotransformation reaction in rats. This intermediate may then be converted
to a number of other oxidation products (eg, phenols, dihydrodiols) or be conjugated with
glutathione.
Urinary radioactivity /of a single 100 mg/kg ip dose of (14)C-naphthalene/
(collected for 72 hours) accounted for 60% of the administered dose. The ether extractable
portion of the urine accounted for 6% of the administered dose and consisted primarily of
1-naphthol and 1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene at 60 and 28%, respectively, of the
ether extractable radioactivity. Water soluble metabolites included 1-naphthol;
1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxy-1-naphthyl sulfate; 1,2-dihydro-2-hydroxy-1-naphthyl glucuronide
and N-acetyl-S-(1,2-dihydro-2-hydroxy-1-naphthyl)cysteine at 5.0, 8.0, 16.8 and 65.0% of
the nonether-extractable urinary radioactivity, respectively. ... Glutathione and
mercapturic acid conjugation are major detoxification pathways in rats.
Following the ip administration of naphthalene
(200 mg/kg) to mice, the lung, in comparison with other organs, was selectively damaged.
Histological examination of the lung showed that it was the non-ciliated, bronchiolar
epithelial cells (Clara cells) which were damaged. At higher doses (400 mg/kg and 600
mg/kg, ip), there was also damage to the cells in the proximal tubules of the kidney. In
contrast to the effect in mice, doses of naphthalene
as high as 1600 mg/kg ip caused no detectable pulmonary or renal damage in the rat. This
difference in toxicity between the mouse and rat was reflected by the ability of naphthalene to more severely deplete the non-protein
sulfhydryls in the mouse lung and kidney than in the rat. In order to investigate the
species difference in toxicity, the metabolism of naphthalene
by lung and liver microsomes of the mouse and rat was studied. In all cases, naphthalene was metabolized to a covalently bound
product(s) and to two major methanol soluble products, which co-chromatographed with
1-naphthol and 1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene. However, both the covalent binding
and metabolism were approximately 10-fold greater in microsomes prepared from mouse lung
compared with those from the rat.
Oral median lethal doses naphthalene ranged
from around 350 mg/kg in mice to 2200 mg/kg in rats. The toxicity of naphthalene
and 2-methylnaphthalene is due to a bronchiolar necrosis that develops rapidly after
inhalation exposure. Clara cells in the bronchiolar epithelium are the primary target for
low doses of naphthalene and
2-methylnaphthalene. When given in multiple doses to mice the bronchiolar epithelium
appears to develop a tolerance to naphthalene.
2-Methylnaphthalene is less acutely toxic than naphthalene.
Mice have tolerated intraperitoneal doses of 2-methylnaphthalene as high as 800 mg/kg.
Both naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene must be
metabolically activated to form enantiomeric epoxides and diol epoxides to express their
toxicity. Stereochemical investigations in the case of naphthalene
conducted in mice have shown that a major reason for the selective injury to the
bronchiolar epithelium may be the high degree to which it is epoxidated. No specific naphthalene or 2-methylnaphthalene metabolite that can
damage Clara cells has been identified nor has a close relationship between the metabolic
binding and toxicity been established. The Clara cell toxicity of naphthalene
and 2-methylnaphthalene may be due to circulating metabolites.
The fate of glutathione conjugates derived from naphthalene
metabolism at various dose levels (5-80 mg/kg) were examined in an effort to explore the
potential use of urinary mercapturic acids as biomarkers of exposure to naphthalene
and as indicators of the activity and stereoselectivity of cytochrome p450 dependent naphthalene epoxidation. This approach extends
previous studies which demonstrated a high degree of stereoselectivity in the formation of
(+)-1R,2S-naphthalene oxide from naphthalene in target tissue microsomes (mouse lung),
but not in microsomal preparations isolated from nontarget tissues such as mouse liver. To
validate the use of mercapturic acids as indicators of epoxide formation in vivo,
individual naphthalene oxide glutathione adduct
isomers were administered iv to mice, and urinary metabolites were identified and
quantified. Mercapturates accounted for 69-75% of the administered dose in the 8 hr urines
of animals treated with trans-1-(S)-hydroxy-2-(S)-glutathionyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene
(adduct 1) and 76-84% for trans-1-(R)-hydroxy-2-(R)-glutathionyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene
(adduct 2). Only 39-57% of the dose of
trans-1-(R)-glutathionyl-2-(R)-hydroxy-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (adduct 3) administered to
mice was excreted as the mercapturic acid derivative; however, two additional metabolites
were detected which were not present in the urine of animals treated with adducts 1 or 2.
The first metabolite, accounting for 2-4% of the dose of adduct 3, was not identified. The
second metabolite, isolated by HPLC and identified by mass spectrometry as
(hydroxy-1,2-dihydronaphthalenylthio)pyruvic acid, accounted for 14-25% of the
administered dose of adduct 3.
Naphthalene induced pulmonary and renal
toxicity and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon induced carcinogenesis are known to be
mediated by their reactive metabolites. Subchronic exposure (90 days) of mice to naphthalene does not alter humoral and cellular
mediated immune responses, whereas polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as
benzo(a)pyrene and 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene, are known to be immunosuppressive. To
understand these differences, the antibody forming cell responses of splenocyte cultures
exposed to naphthalene (2, 20, and 200 uM) were
evaluated. At these concentrations, the antibody forming cell response to sheep red blood
cells (RBC) was not affected. To determine if reactive metabolites of naphthalene
were immunosuppressive, splenocytes were exposed to naphthalene
metabolites by direct addition or through the use of a metabolic activation system. The
addition of 1-naphthol (70 and 200 uM) and 1,4-naphthoquinone (2, 7, and 20 uM) resulted
in a decreased antibody forming cell response. Suppression of antibody forming cell
responses was also obtained by culturing splenocytes with liver S9 and naphthalene.
Since splenic metabolism of naphthalene to
nonimmunosuppressive metabolites may account for the absence of immunotoxicity, the types
of naphthalene metabolites generated by splenic
microsomes were determined. It was observed that splenic microsomes were unable to
generate any detectable naphthalene metabolites,
whereas liver microsomes were able to generate both 1,2-naphthalene
diol and 1-naphthol. Thus, the absence of an immunosuppressive effect by naphthalene
exposure may be related to the inability of splenocytes to metabolize naphthalene.
Moreover, the concentration of naphthalene
metabolites generated within the liver that may diffuse to the spleen may be inadequate to
produce immunotoxicity.
Absorption, Distribution & Excretion:
CUTANEOUS ABSORPTION OF NAPHTHALENE IN
INFANTS IS INCR BY BABY OIL.
... READILY ABSORBED WHEN INHALED.
... EXCRETED IN URINE AS 1-NAPHTHYLMERCAPTURIC ACID (15% DOSE) AND AS CONJUGATES OF
1,2-DIHYDRONAPHTHALENE-1,2-DIOL (10%), 1- & 2-NAPHTHOLS &
1,2-DIHYDROXYNAPHTHALENE.
At 100 mg/kg intraperitoneally, 20 to 30% was excreted in the rat urine 85 to 90% of
these in the form of conjugates /which are acidic/; 5 to 10% was excreted in the bile, of
these also 70 to 80% as acid conjugates, with the major metabolite naphthalene-1,2-dihydrodiol.
IN SMALL OYSTERS TRANSPORT OF NAPHTHALENE
BETWEEN TISSUES IS PRIMARILY BY DIFFUSION. IN INTACT OYSTERS, ACCUM IN ADDUCTOR MUSCLE
& BODY FOLLOWED ACCUM IN GILLS AFTER A LARGE LAG-TIME. IN ISOLATED TISSUES WITH NO
SHELL TO IMPEDE WATER, THERE WAS NO TIME LAG.
THE GILLS OF DOLLY VARDEN CHAR (SALVELINUS MALMA) WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT PATHWAY FOR
EXCRETION OF (14)C FROM (14)C-LABELED NAPHTHALENE.
IN GENERAL, FISH EXPOSED TO TOLUENE EXCRETED MORE (14)C THAN FISH EXPOSED TO NAPHTHALENE.
ENGLISH SOLE EXPOSED TO (3)H-BENZO(A)PYRENE & (14)C-NAPHTHALENE
IN SEDIMENT CONTAINING PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL. BIOCONCENTRATION VALUE FOR (14)C NAPHTHALENE WAS GREATER THAN VALUES FOR
(3)H-BENZO(A)PYRENE IN TISSUES OF FISH EXPOSED FOR 24 HR.
THE PATTERN OF NAPHTHALENE UPTAKE & ACCUM
FROM A FLOW-THROUGH SYSTEM INTO OYSTER TISSUES WAS RELATIVELY CONSTANT AFTER ONLY A FEW HR
OF EXPOSURE. ACCUM WAS INFLUENCED BY NUTRITIONAL STATE, LIPID CONCN, LENGTH OF EXPOSURE TO
NAPHTHALENE & EXTERNAL NAPHTHALENE
CONCN.
THE MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT BY POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH) INTO CELLS &
BETWEEN INTRACELLULAR MEMBRANES IS DISCUSSED. FROM THE PARTITIONING PARAMETERS, THE RATE
LIMITING STEP /IN THE TRANSPORT OF PAH'S CELLS AND ACROSS INTRAELLULAR MEMBRANE/ INVOLVES
SOLVATION OF TRANSFER SPECIES IN THE INTERFACIAL WATER AT PHOSPHOLIPID SURFACE.
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are highly soluble in adipose tissue and lipids.
/Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons/
Naphthalene was readily taken up by tissue of
laying pullets, swine, and dairy cattle after oral administration of a single dose or on a
daily basis for 31 days. Adipose tissue, kidneys, livers, and lungs of pullets had the
highest naphthalene levels after acute
treatment; kidneys had high levels after chronic treatment. In swine, adipose tissues had
high levels of naphthalene after acute
treatment; lungs were highest with chronic treatment. In cattle, livers had the highest
levels of naphthalene after both treatments.
CONJUGATES OF GLUTATHIONE, CYSTEINYLGLYCINE & CYSTEINE, INTERMEDIATES IN FORMATION
OF MERCAPTURIC ACIDS, ARE EXCRETED, PARTICULARLY IN BILE, AS METABOLITES OF ... NAPHTHALENE. ...
Cutaneous and gastrointestinal absorption are facilitated when naphthalene
is administered with oil or fat, respectively.
Humans most absorb naphthalene by the
inhalation route.
Naphthalene and its metabolites have been
reported to cross the human placenta in amounts sufficient to cause fetal toxicity.
Single gavage doses of naphthalene of 0, 30,
75 or 200 mg/kg /were administered/ to two male and two female yearling chimpanzees and
five adult male SPF Wistar rats, and urinary excretion of thioether /was determined/. At
0, 30, 75 and 200 mg/kg, thioether excretion in rats was 94.4, 185.6, 279.6 and 502.0
umol/24 hr/kg, respectively. Thioether excretion by chimpanzees (measured at 0 and 200
mg/kg) did not increase as a result of exposure to naphthalene.
Reactive metabolites bind irreversibly with eye lens proteins and are associated with
cataract formation. They also bind covalently with macromolecules in the lungs and may be
associated with damage to the bronchiolar epithelium.
Mechanism of Action:
1,2-Dihydroxynaphthalene or 1,2-naphthoquinone /metabolites of naphthalene/
combined with amino acids or irreversibly with the thiol groups of lens protein to form a
brown precipitate. ... Hydroperoxide formed in the oxidation of 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene
and ascorbic acid can act with high levels of glutathione peroxidase in the eye to oxidize
glutathione.
... One or more metabolic products of naphthalene
reaches the eye by way of the bloodstream, reacts with the constituents of the lens and
thus disrupts its integrity and transparency.
Mitochondrial respiration is inhibited 50% by 10 ppm (78 uM) nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide oxidase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-cytochrome c reductase,
ubiquinone-50 oxidase, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-ubiquinone reductase are
inhibited; while succinate oxidase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-ferricyanide
reductase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide -indophenol reductase, and ATPase activities
are not inhibited. ... Exposure at concentrations >7.5 ppm causes cultured cells to
round up ... with eventual death the result. The effects of naphthalene
on morphology and respiration are very similar, suggesting that mitochondrial inhibition
plays a significant role in the effects of naphthalene
on intact cells.
The renal epithelium of the marine prosobranch gastropod Littorina littorea consists of
two cell types, namely, vacuolated excretory cells and ciliated cells. The present work
investigates the fine structure of the kidney of winkles after experimental exposure to
low levels (30 ug/liter) of naphthalene in sea
water. Ultrastructural changes within excretory cells consisted of increased formation or
accumulation of lipid droplets, increased occurrence of membrane bound dark bodies which
became enlarged after 96 hr of exposure to naphthalene,
distortion of the Golgi complex, and altered mitochondrial structure. An increase in the
numbers of residual bodies was observed in napthalene-exposed ciliated cells, together
with numerous lipid droplets. In addtion, hemocytes were seen to infiltrate the renal
tissue of treated female winkles.
Interactions:
Ip injection of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) with 100 ug benzo(a)pyrene,
Aroclor 1254, or naphthalene, singly and in
combinations, affected the levels of the brain neurotransmitters norepinephrine, dopamine,
and 5 hydroxytryptamine, but the effect showed no discernible pattern. The effects of
combinations of the chemicals did not appear to be predictable from the effects of
individual chemicals. In several instances, the change in the level of neurotransmitter in
fish receiving a combination of chemicals was greater than in fish receiving either
chemical alone.
Pharmacology:
Therapeutic Uses:
MEDICATION (VET): 0.2% ... USED IN COMBINATION-TYPE ANTISEPTIC FOR IRRIGATING WOUNDS
& 1% ... ON NEGLECTED INFECTED WOUNDS.
MEDICATION (VET): EXTERNALLY, ON LIVESTOCK & POULTRY ... TO CONTROL LICE ... POWDER
USUALLY CONTAINS 15-35% CONCN ALTHOUGH 100% ... OCCASIONALLY USED ... LOWER CONCN ... USED
WITH OTHER INSECTICIDES.
Interactions:
Ip injection of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) with 100 ug benzo(a)pyrene,
Aroclor 1254, or naphthalene, singly and in
combinations, affected the levels of the brain neurotransmitters norepinephrine, dopamine,
and 5 hydroxytryptamine, but the effect showed no discernible pattern. The effects of
combinations of the chemicals did not appear to be predictable from the effects of
individual chemicals. In several instances, the change in the level of neurotransmitter in
fish receiving a combination of chemicals was greater than in fish receiving either
chemical alone.
Environmental Fate & Exposure:
Environmental Fate/Exposure Summary:
Naphthalene enters the atmosphere primarily
from fugitive emissions and exhaust connected with its presence in fuel oil and gasoline.
In addition, there are discharges on land and into water from spills during the storage,
transport and disposal of fuel oil, coal tar, etc. Once in the atmosphere, naphthalene rapidly photodegrades (half-life 3-8 hr).
Releases into water are lost due to volatilization, photolysis, adsorption, and
biodegradation. The principal loss processes will depend on local conditions but
half-lives can be expected to range from a couple of days to a few months. When adsorbed
to sediment, biodegradation occurs much more rapidly than in the overlying water column.
When spilled on land, naphthalene is adsorbed
moderately to soil and undergoes biodegradation. However, in some cases it will appear in
the groundwater where biodegradation still may occur if conditions are aerobic.
Bioconcentration occurs to a moderate extent but since depuration and metabolism readily
proceed in aquatic organisms, this is a short term problem. The primary source of exposure
is from air, especially in areas of heavy traffic or where fumes from evaporating gasoline
or fuel oil exist or in the vicinity of petroleum refineries and coal coaking operations.
(SRC)
Probable Routes of Human Exposure:
Coal tar pitch volatiles ... may contact the eyes. /Coal tar pitch volatiles/
Exposure of up to 220 ppm (vapor) and 4.4 ug/cu m (particulates) are possible in
industrial situations(1). Naphthalene exposed
workers include those who make beta naphthol, celluloid, dye chemicals, fungicide,
hydronaphthalene, lampblack, phthalic anhydride, smokeless powder as well as those who
work with/in coal tar, moth repellants, tanneries, textile chemicals, aluminum reduction
plants(1). Air levels of naphthalene in an
aluminum reduction plant - 0.72-311.3 ug/cu m (0.1-59.5 ppb)(vapor), 0.090-4.00 ug/cu m
(particulate); coke oven 11.35-1,120 ug/cu m (2-214 ppb)(vapor), 0-4.40 ug/cu m
(particulate)(1). Air conc in different work areas of silcon carbide plant - 1.3 - 58
ug/cu m(2). Results of field trials on average exposure to particulate (vapor phase) naphthalene in specified operation in certain
industries in ug/cu m: paving/ roofing/ steel/ silicon carbide 11.43 (0.08); refractory
brick 16.30 (-); silicon carbide 75.40 (0.01); aluminum refinery 1111.4 (0.52)(3). NIOSH
(NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 23,092 workers may be exposed to naphthalene in the USA(4).
Individuals with potential exposure to naphthalene
include: beta-naphthol makers; celluloid makers; coal tar workers; dye chemical makers;
fungicide makers; hydronaphthalene makers; lampblack makers; moth repellant workers;
phthalic anhydride makers; smokeless powder makers; tannery workers; textile chemical
workers; aluminum reduction plant workers. /From table/
Perhaps the greatest hazard to the worker is the potential for operating or maintenance
personnel to be accidentally splashed with hot molten naphthalene
while taking samples or disassembling process lines.
Humans are primarily exposed to naphthalene
from ambient air particularly in areas with heavy traffic, near petroleum refineries, coal
tar distillation facilities or where evaporative losses from the storage, transport,
transfer or disposal of fuel oil occurs. Another source of exposure is from tobacco smoke.
Although data is scanty, moderate exposure may occur from some supplies of drinking water.
(SRC)
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (PAH) CONTENT IN AIR OF 10 FERROUS & NONFERROUS
FOUNDRIES WAS STUDIED. CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS REPORTED TO HAVE A HIGH RISK OF LUNG CANCER,
SUCH AS MOLDERS, CASTERS & CRANE MEN, WERE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF PAH
EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE. THIS RESULT WAS NOT STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT.
GLASS CAPILLARY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY SHOWED THAT WORKERS IN COKE PLANT WERE EXPOSED TO 5
TO 1000 MG POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH)/CU M AIR (INCL ACENAPHTHYLENE).
PARTICULATE MATTER CONTAINS 98% RESPIRABLE PAH.
Workers ... exposed to coal tar, mineral oil, and petroleum waxes. /Polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons/
Body Burden:
Mother's milk from 4 USA urban areas - detected in 6 of 8 samples positive(1).
HUMAN ADIPOSE TISSUE CONCENTRATIONS: A National Human Adipose Tissue Survey (NHATS) by
EPA for fiscal year 1982 detected naphthalene in
wet adipose tissue with a frequency of 40% and conc range <9 ppb - 63 ppb(1).
Average Daily Intake:
AIR INTAKE: (assume 0.18 ppb vapor) 19 ug; WATER INTAKE: (assume 0.001-2 ppb) 0.002-4
ug(SRC).
Natural Pollution Sources:
Component of crude oil; since naphthalene is
a natural combustion product, forest fires, etc may be a source of naphthalene.
(SRC)
Artificial Pollution Sources:
Emissions from its production from petroleum refining and coal tar distillation(1);
Emissions and wastewater from its use as a chemical intermediate(2); Motor vehicle
emissions; tobacco smoke(3); coal tar pitch fumes(1); unvented kerosene space heaters(4);
smoke from tire fire(5). Oil spills and leaking underground petroleum storage tanks and
leaks and spills of othe petroleum products(6,SRC).
Naphthalene has been identified in cigarette
smoke condensate(1).
Environmental Fate:
TERRESTRIAL FATE: The sorption of napthalene to soil will be low to moderate depending
on its organic carbon content. Its passage through sandy soil will be rapid. It will
undergo biodegradation which may be rapid when the soil has been contaminated with PAHs
(half-life a few hours to days) but slow otherwise (half-life > 80 days). Evaporation
of naphthalene from the top soil layer will be
important but the importance of the process will gradually decrease as the soil depth
increases. Laboratory experiments conducted to observe the fate of naphthalene
in soil columns under moderate and high flow conditions for 90 days found a decay rate of
0.1 1/day under moderate flow conditions and much lower decay rate, 0.0147 1/day, under
high flow conditions(1). The napthalene therefore degraded rapidly under moderate flow
conditions and had completely disappeared from the soil column at the end of 90 days. At
this time the napthalene had advected downward approximately 1.2 m. Higher flow rates may
reduce the diffusion of oxygen into the soil causing a reduction in degradation rates.
When naphthalene was incubated in two sandy loam
soils, at concentrations typical of those in waste disposal sites, for 48 hrs, 30% of the naphthalene was lost by volatilization(2). The
biodegradation rates and half-lives for the two soils were 0.3370 and 0.3080 1/day and 2.1
and 2.2 days, respectively(2,SRC).
AQUATIC FATE: Photolysis, volatilization, biodegradation, and adsorption may all be
important loss mechanisms for naphthalene
disharged into water. In the Rhine River the half-life has been determined as 2.3 days
based upon monitoring data(1). Moderate adsorption to sediment and particulate matter
occurs. In surface layers of water, photolysis may be dominant (half-life 3 days).
Volatilization is an important loss mechanism especially in rapid streams since the
half-life for a river may be a couple of days. In a mesocosm experiment which simulated
Narragansett Bay, the half-life in winter was 12 days; loss being primarily due to
evaporation(2). These investigators did not mention any photolytic loss which would
certainly have been noticed since they used sterile controls(2). In oil contaminated water
which is not exposed to sunlight because the water is murky or the water depth is great,
biodegradation can be important with half-lives of 7 days in oil polluted streams to a few
months in coastal waters. (SRC)
ATMOSPHERIC FATE: Naphthalene reacts with
photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals and degrades with a half-life of 3-8 hr(2-4).
Although photolysis should occur, no data could be found to assess its importance. In
polluted urban air, reaction with NO3 radicals may be an additional sink for night time
loss. An analysis of PAH concentrations and the origins of the air masses reaching the
sampling site over a two week period (14 sampling events) indicates that the concentration
is determined by the origin of the air mass (long distant transport)(1). Short terms
phenoma, such as rain events, appear to be without effect.
AQUATIC FATE: Ground water in the immediate vicinity of an area previously used for the
disposal of charcoal manufacturing wastes has been shown to contain low levels of phenolic
and polycyclic compounds. Based on the analysis of samples obtained from monitoring wells,
the levels of the organic contaminants are reduced to near or below the detection limit
within a distance of 100 meters downgradient of the fill. Examination of the ground water
chemistry indicated that the aquifer is essentially aerobic across the site, except in the
immediate vicinity of the fill. At this point, dissolved oxygen is apparently depleted due
to the biodegradation of organic contaminants introduced into the ground water, with a
concomitant increase in the inorganic carbon concentration. Laboratory microcosm
experiments demonstrated that the naturally occurring microorganisms can readily degrade a
mixture of the predominant organic contaminants. Half-lives for biodegradation were in the
range of 3 to 8 days for phenolic substrates, and 11 to 18 days for naphthalene.
Computer model simulations indicated that the attenuation observed in the aquifer cannot
be explained in terms of physical processes such as adsorption or dispersion, but is
consistent with biological degradation.
Environmental Biodegradation:
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with 4 or less aromatic rings are degraded by microbes
and are readily metabolized by multicellular organisms ... . /Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons/
Biodegradation is probably slower in the aquatic system than in the soil, and
biodegradation may be much more important in those aquatic systems which are chronically
affected by contamination. /Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/
There is a moderate amount of data concerning the biodegradability of naphthalene
both in standard biodegradability tests and in natural systems. Although there is some
conflicting data, the preponderance of data suggests that naphthalene
degrades after a relatively short period of acclimation and that degradation can be rapi
in oil polluted water, slow in unpolluted water and that the rate of degradation increases
with the concentration of naphthalene(5). In
laboratory tests with sewage or sludge inoculums, 100% degradation was obtained in 7
days(1-2) while others got 0% BOD in 5 days(3-4). The lag period for naphthalene
degradation decreased as groundwater was more polluted with fuel oil; the lag period was
1.2 and 1.9 days in heavily polluted and slightly polluted water, respectively versus 12
days for unpolluted water(8). Approximately 70% was lost in a pilot-scale municipal
wastewater treatment plant due to biodegradation(6). In water, bacteria can utilize naphthalene only when it is in the dissolved state(7).
Twenty percent of naphthalene was degraded to
CO2 when incubated in water from an oil polluted creek(1) and rapid degradation, sometimes
as fast as 95% degradation in 1.5 hr(3), have been reported in other experiments with
inoculums from oil contaminated water or sediment(2). In die-away tests, reported
half-lives include 70 hr in water with high PAH levels(4); 7, 24, 63, and 1700 days in an
oil polluted estuarine stream, clean estuarine stream, coastal waters and in the Gulf
Stream respectively(5); 9 days in water near a coal-coking wastewater discharge(6).
Highest rates of mineralization in a relatively unpolluted station in Long Island Sound
and the Hudson River Estuary, corrected for volatilization, were 118%/day (5.8 ug/L-day))
and 172%/day (1.72 ug/L-day), respectively(10). In water from the Alaskan Continental
Shelf degradation rates avg 0.5%/week; however, when nutrient levels are lower as in late
spring-early summer (after algae blooms), the degradation rate is reduced(7). In a
mesocosm experiment using Narragansett Bay seawater, the half-life in late summer was 0.8
days and is principally due to biodegradation(8). Biodegradation half-life 43 days in
microbe-supplemented filtered Lake Superior Harbor water and 39 days in nutrient and
microbe-supplemented water(9).
Degradation rates in sediment are much higher than in water, being 8-20 fold higher
than in the water column above the sediment(3). Half-lives in sediment include 4.9 hr and
> 88 days in oil contaminated and uncontaminated sediment, resp(3), 9 days in sediment
near a coal coaking discharge(2); and 3, 5, and > 2,000 hours in sediments with high,
medium and low PAH levels respectively(1). When incubated in a slurry with sediment from
an uncontaminated pond, the mineralization rate increases, reaching a peak after 6-12 days
corresponding to a half life of 78 days(4). Biodegradation half-life ranged from 2.4 weeks
in sediments chronically exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons to 4.4 weeks in sediment from a
pristine enviornment(5). Naphthalene disappeared
rapidly from an unacclimated agricultural soil during a 60 day period(6). Naphthalene (concn 7 mg/L) degradation was studied
under various redox conditions in soil-water systems(7). It degraded to undectectable
levels in 45 days, 2 wk lag, under denitrifying conditions (anaerobic with 75 mg
nitrate/L(7). No significant degradation occurred in 50 days under anaerobic
conditions(7).
No degradation under anaerobic conditions was observed in 6 and 11 weeks in a lab
reactor with seed from a well near a source of contamination(1), or with sewage seed(2),
resp, but complete degradation occurred in 8 days in gas-oil saturated groundwater which
was circulated through under aerobic conditions(3). The latter case indicates that some
species of ubiquitous microflora present in clean groundwater is capable of degrading naphthalene. Biodegradation occurred in groundwater
contaminated with creosote(4).
This study explores the potential for a bacterial monooxygenase to remove polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons from aqueous solutions at high rates. This is part of a larger
effort to test the versatility of the cytochrome p450cam monooxygenase enzyme system for
detoxification of industrial process wastewaters that contain trace quantities of
hazardous compounds like PAHs or halocarbons. The intracellular concentration of p450cam
in washed, resting cells suspensions of Pseudomonaoas putida PpG 786 that were cultured on
camphor was measured by adapting a spectrophotometric method used to measure p450
concentration in extracts of mammalian tissue. Naphthalene
removal in the suspensions was measured as a function of incubation time, biomass
concentration, starting naphthalene
concentration, starting naphthalene concentraton
((3-180 umol/l) and in the presence of known p450 inhibitors. Involvement of the p450cam
system in the measured naphthalene disappearance
was established by showing that while significant naphthalene
removal occurred in camphor-grown biomass, no disappearance was observed in
glutamate-grown biomass and that removal was turned off in the presence of the p450
inhibitor metyrapone. The half-live of napthalene removed decreased rapidly as initial naphthalene concentration increased, and essentially
no naphthalene was removed when the starting
concentration exceeded 189 umol/l (23 ppm).
Environmental Abiotic Degradation:
Naphthalene absorbs light with a wavelength
greater than 290 nm and will photolyze in water(1,3). Photolysis should also occur in air
but no experimental data could be found(SRC). The half-life in surface waters is
calculated to be 71 hours(1,2) and longer in deeper or murky water(1). When a mixture of
jet fuel was added to filtered deionized water, salt water or pond water and exposed to
sunlight, 44-77% of the naphthalene in the fuel
was lost in 7 days(6). The presence of algae in the water can increase the rate of
photolysis of naphthalene by a factor of 1.3 to
2.7(5). If nitrite is present in the water, mutagenic products are formed during
photolysis(4). Reaction with oxidizing species in natural waters as well as hydrolysis
will not be significant(3).
Naphthalene in air reacts with
photochemically generated hydroxyl radicals, the rate constant being 2.16X10-11 cu
cm/molec-sec(1-2,5). Its half-life is about 8 hr in clean air and 3 hr in moderately
polluted air(1-3). The loss of naphthalene due
to reaction with N2O5 and O3 in air is neglible(1,3,6). In polluted urban air, reaction
with NO3 radicals may be an additional sink for night time loss(4).
The mineralization of (14)C-labelled naphthalene
was studied in pristine and oil-contaminated soil slurry (30% solids) under denitryfying
conditions using a range of concentrations from below to above the aqueous phase
saturation level. Results from sorption-desorption experiments indicated that naphthalene desorption was highly irreversible and
decreased with an increase in the soil organic content, thus influencing the availability
for microbial consumption. Under denitrifying conditions, the mineralization of naphthalene to CO2 occurred in parallel with the
consumption of nitrate and an increase in pH from 7.0 to 8.6. When the initial substrate
concentration was 50 ppm (ie close to the aqueous phase saturation level), about 90% of
the total naphthalene was mineralized within 50
days, and a maximum mineralization rate of 1.3 ppm/day was achieved after a lag period of
approx 18 days. When added at concentrations higher than the aqueous phase saturation
level (200 and 500 ppm), similar mineralization rates (1.8 ppm/day) occurred until about
50 ppm of the naphthalene was mineralized. After
that the mineralization rates decreased logarithmically to a minimum of 0.24 ppm/day for
the rest of the 160 days of the experiments. For both of these higher concentrations, the
reaction kinetics were independent of the concentration, indicating that desorption of the
substrate governs the mineralization rate. Other results indicated that pre-exposure of
soil to oil contamination did not improve the degradation rates nor reduce the lag
periods. This study clearly shows the potential of denitrifying conditions for the
biodegradation of low molecular weight polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
Environmental Bioconcentration:
Naphthalene bioconcentrates to a moderate
amount in fish and aquatic invertebrates (log BCF 1.6-3.0)(1-6). However, at least for
invertebrates, depuration is rapid when the organism is placed in water free of the
pollutant(6-7) and naphthalene is also readily
metabolized in fish(8).
... Some marine organisms have no detectable aryl hydrocarbons hydroxylase enzyme
systems, namely: phytoplankton, certain zooplankton, mussels (Mytilus edulis), scallops
(Placopecten sp), and snails (Litternia littorea). ... Those organisms which lack a
metabolic detoxification enzyme system, tend to accumulate polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. /Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/
Bioaccumulation, especially in vertebrate organisms, is considered to be short-term,
and is not considered an important fate process. /Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH) WERE ANALYZED IN SURFACIAL SEDIMENTS &
BENTHIC ORGANISMS IN SOUTHEASTERN LAKE ERIE, NEAR A LARGE COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT. SEDIMENT
CONCN (530-770 PPB PAH) WERE RELATIVELY HOMOGENOUS THROUGHOUT MOST OF THE 150 SQUARE KM
AREA, ALTHOUGH RIVER & NEARSHORE CONCENTRATIONS REACHED 4 PPM. OLIGOCHAETE WORMS DID
NOT BIOCONCENTRATE (ON WET WT BASIS) ANY OF THE PAH. CHIRONOMIDE MIDGES COLLECTED 1 KM
OFFSHORE EXHIBITED BIOCONCENTRATION OF 5 PAH ONE OF WHICH WAS PYRENE. FURTHER OFFSHORE,
THESE APPARENT BIOCONCENTRATIONS DISAPPEARED, WITH MIDGES AT NEAR EQUILIBRIUM WITH
SEDIMENTS.
Soil Adsorption/Mobility:
Naphthalene is adsorbed moderately by soil
and sediment. 17 soils and sediment had a mean Koc of 871(1) and soils from Switzerland
had a Koc of 812(3). A mean Koc of 2400 was measured for 4 silt loams and a sandy loam
soil(2), a mean Koc of 594 (range 420-830) for 5 soils of different clay and organic
carbon content(14), and a Koc of 4100 was measured for natural estuarine colloids(12).
After a release of petroleum derived fuels or solvents, nonaqueous phase liquids are
retained in the pore space of soils or as a thin film. Soils contaminated with residual
hydrocarbons adsorb napthalene to a much greater extent, (nearly 2 orders of magnititude
greater in Lincoln sand) than in natural soil(13). Partitioning to the residual
hydrocarbons occurred independently of that to the soil organic carbon. While sorption
decreased somewhat as a result of weathering, high retention persisted after extensive
weathering. Although it adsorbs to aquifer material(10), in simulations of groundwater
transport systems and rapid infiltration sites, and in field studies, naphthalene
frequently appears to infiltrate(4-9). Partitioning to dissolved organic matter can reduce
the apparent partitioning to soil and facilitate transport in soil(15). A half-life of 65
hr due to sediment adsorption in a flowing river of 1 m depth and 0.5 m/sec has been
predicted(11). In a variety of surface waters only 0.1-0.8% of the napthalene was sorbed
to particulate matter(11).
Volatilization from Water/Soil:
The laboratory determined half-life for the evaporation of naphthalene
from water 1 m deep with a 1 m/sec current velocity and a 3 m/sec wind speed is 4.1-5
hr(1,2). In the case of naphthalene the rate of
volatilization is much more sensitive to the current velocity and a 10 fold decrease in
current to 0.1 m/sec will increase the half-life to 32 hours whereas 10 fold decrease in
wind speed to 0.3 m/sec will increase the half-life to 11 hr(1). The rate of evaporation
of naphthalene in jet fuel from water relative
to the oxygen reaeration rate ranged from 0.2 to 0.5 which when combined with typical
reaeration rates for natural bodies of water(4) give a half-life for evaporation of 50 and
200 hr in a river and lake respectively(3). Estimated volatilization half-lives from a
soil containing 1.25% organic carbon were 1.1 day from 1 cm soil depth and 14.0 days from
10 cm soil depth(5). In moisture-saturated soil as in the case of flooded soil,
volatilization may not be important(6).
Environmental Water Concentrations:
DRINKING WATER: Napthalene measured as follows: Washington DC tap water - 1 ppb(1). 3
New Orleans area drinking water plants sampled - detected but not quantified(2). 12 Great
Lake municipalities drinking water supplies - 0.9 to 1271 ppb, with levels being generally
higher in winter(3). Cincinnnati, OH, Feb 1980 - 5 parts/trillion(5). Drinking waters - up
to 1.4 ppb(4). 2 representative US cities, tap water - not detected, 14% frequency in
source for city A - 7.8 ppb avg, 23% frequency in source for City B - 23.0 ppb avg(6).
DRINKING WATER: Naphthalene measured as
follows: Rhine River water, the Netherlands, bank-filtered tap water - 100
parts/trillion(1). Kitakyushu area Japan - 2.2 ppb(2). Zurich Switzerland, tap water - 8
parts/trillion(3,6). Ottawa, Ontario - January, 1978 - 4.8 parts/trillion, February, 1978
- 6.8 parts/trillion(4). 4 of 5 Nordic tap water, - 1.2 to 8.8 parts/trillion(5).
GROUNDWATER: Naphthalene was detected as
follows: Hoe Creek, NY, underground coal gasification site, 2 aquifers sampled 15 months
after gasification complete - 380 to 1800 ppb(1). Samples from East Anglica, England chalk
aquifer 10, 100-120, and 210 m distance from gasoline storage - 150, 30, and 0.1 ppb
resp(2). 3 of 4 rapid infiltration sites, Fort Polk, LA - 0.03 to 0.22 ppb, 1 of 4 sites
not quantified(3). Zurich, Switzerland - not detected(4). Gas Works Park, Seattle, WA -
sites of coal and oil gasification plant that ceased operation in 1956: 9 of 15 wells
positive for napthalene above the 0.005 mg/L detection limit, 0.02-12 mg/L(5).
Representive, highly impacted groundwater at five sanitary landfill sites in southern
Ontario: <0.2, 19, 21, 60, and 61 ppb(6). Detected in groundwater near Falmouth, MA in
infiltration site for secondary effluent used since 1936(7).
SURFACE WATER: Lake Michigan - a trace detected at 5 of 9 sites(7). Delaware River
studies ranged from a trace to 0.9 ppb(1,5). Ohio River between Wheeling and Evansville (5
samples) and 3 tributaries - detected at a detection limit of 0.1 ppb(3). Charles River,
Boston - detected at a detection limit of 0.1 ppb(4). Lower Tennessee R, Calvert City, KY
- 30.4 ppb (water and sediment)(6). Unspecified US river near industrial sites - 6 to 10
ppb(2). Natural waters - up to 2 ppb(8). MacKenzie River, Canada - six sites along 1200 km
length sediment(10). 0.67 mi downstream from site of a tire fire 27 ppb(9).
SURFACE WATER: Lake Zurich, Switzerland - surface water - 8 parts/trillion: water at 30
m depth - 52 parts/trillion(2-3). Kitakyusku area, Japan - detected, not quantified in
river water(1). River Glatt, Switzerland - detected, not quantified(4). Mississippi River
during summer 1980 - 4 - 34 ppb(5).
SEAWATER: Napthalene measured as follows: Gulf of Mexico - unpolluted (anthropogenic
influence) 0.2 parts/trillion mean(2). Cape Cod, MA - Vineyard Sound - 0.5/35
parts/trillion, 12 parts/trillion avg and results displayed a strong seasonal pattern,
highest concentrations noted in winter which suggests a source from heating fuels(4).
Chemotaxis Dock, Vineyard Sound MA, Dec 78 to Mar 79 - 0 to 27 parts/trillion, with low
levels reported in Dec and Jan; high level reported in February, correlating with a late
heavy snowfall, indicating runoff or atmospheric inputs(5). Dohkai Bay, Japan - area
polluted by domestic and industrial waste as well as airborne particulates - detected, not
quantified(3). Kitakyusku area, Japan - detected, not quantified(1). Estuary sites in
Texas adjacent to offshore shallow water multiwell platform 2.1 ppb; 10 m from platform
54.7 ppb(6).
Effluent Concentrations:
Industrial effluents- up to 3200 ppb, discharges from sewage treatment plants - up to
22 ppb(1). Water sample from a stream running through an oil tank farm, Knoxville TN - 8
ppb(2) tire manufacturing plant wastewaters - 100 ppb(2,4). Spent chlorination liquors
from bleaching of sulfite pulp - 0.8 - 2.0 g/ ton pulp(9). Bekkelaget Sewage treatment
plant, Oslo, Norway, secondary sewage water effluent - 88 parts/trillion (dry period, Nov,
1979), 303 parts/trillion (dry period, spring, 1980), 1504 parts/trillion (after rainfall,
summer, 1980)(3). Gas phase emission rates, diesel trucks - 7.4 mg/km (filtered), 9.2
mg/km (nonfiltered), gasoline-powered vehicles - 8.6 mg/km (filtered), 8.1 mg/km
(unfiltered)(5). 2 representative USA cities, sewage treatment plant influent, city A -
33% frequency, 13 ppb avg, city B - 67% frequency, 14.8 ppb avg; city B effluent - not
detected(6). Industries with mean treated wastewater concentrations greater than 200 ppb -
paint and ink formulation, electrical/electronic components, auto and other laundries,
iron and steel manufacturing ( < 920 ppb)(7). Maxey Flats, KY and West Valley, NY -
trench leachate - 0.12 to 0.28 ppm (3 of 3 trenches pos) and 0.46 to 1.7 ppm (2 of 3
pos)(8).
Sediment/Soil Concentrations:
Detected in only 1 sediment sample from an industrial location on an unspecified USA
river(1). Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton, Ontario - 2.0 ppb in pond sediment(2). Lower
Tennessee River, Calvert, KY - 30.4 ppb water and sediment(3) Kitakyusku area, Japan -
detected in sediment, not quantified(4). Dohkai Bay, Japan, area polluted by domestic and
industrial waste and airborne particulates - detected in sediment, not quantified(5).
Saudafjord, Norway, suggested sources - ferro alloy smelter, sediment from 6 sites,
station 1 closest to smelter - 483.8 ppb (0-2 cm), 685.9 ppb (2-4 cm), 278.7 ppb (4-6 cm),
328.3 pb (6-8 cm), station 2,2479.5 ppb (0-2 cm), station 3,48.3 ppb (0-2 cm), station
4,10.9 ppb (4-6 cm), not detected stations 5 and 6 (furthest away)(6). South Texas coast,
samples taken following the blowout of an exploratory oil well (Ixtoc-1) - detected at
trace amount in 3 of 3 samples(7). Cascoe Bay Maine, detected in 1 of 30 samples at 113
ppb(8). Windsor Cove, Buzzards Bay, MA, 0-6 cm - 9.2 ppm (Oct 74), 0.63 ppm (May 75), 0.11
ppm (June 1977), oil spill occurred October 1974(9). Wild Harbor, Buzzards Bay, MA -
detected not quantified immediately following September 1969 oil spill, not detected from
1971 to 1976(9). Sediments from various fjords in Norway, 0-5 cm samples: Saudafjord, 800
m from ferro alloy plant - 2,870 ppb; Sorfjord, Tyssedal, 500 m from aluminum plant 3 and
5 km from zinc and calcium carbide plants resp - 220 ppb; Sorfjord, Hovland, 15, 18 and 20
km from above industries - 41.5 ppb. Brofjord, 800 m from petroleum refinery - 70.0 ppb;
Oslofjord, Bunnefjord, close to city of Oslo - 53.6 ppb; Oslofjord, Lysakerkilen, close to
city of Oslo 45.8 ppb; North Sea 500 m from oil field - 31.6 ppb; North Sea, 10 km from
oil field - 4.32 ppb, and Framvaren, a permanent anoxic fjord with no potential local
pollution but high PAH values - 292 ppb (0-10 cm), 272 ppb (14-20 cm)(10). March Point,
Strait of Juan de Fuca and Northern Puget Sound, unpolluted area, baseline study - not
detected in two week sampling intervals(11). Soil near aluminum reduction plant - 48.3
ppn; unpolluted soil - 46.2 ppb; soil under a March - 57.7 ppb(12). Northwest region of
Arabian Gulf, region with many oil refineries and heavy oil tanker traffic (29 stations)
0.01 - 7.14 ppb(13).
Atmospheric Concentrations:
RURAL: Narragansett Bay, RI coastal area - 3.18 pg/cu m (particulates > 1.0 um),
49.10 pg/cu m (very fine particulates < 1.0 um)(1). Remote site in the Mediterranean
Sea at Corsica (14-24 hrs samples) 11.69-38.94 ug/cu m(18). URBAN/SUBURBAN: 11 US samples
180 parts/trillion median, 11-480 parts/trillion range(5). Kingston RI - 31.1 pg/cu m
(particulates > 1.0 um), 27.90 pg/cu m (very fine particulates < 1.0 um)(1). USSR
industrial cities and Leningrad - detected not quantified(2,3). Providence, RI,
industrialized urban - 248.0 pg/cu m (particulates > 1.0 um), 100.70 pg/cu m (very fine
particulates < 1.0 um)(1). Lillestrom and Oslo Norway - detected, not quantified(4).
Air in residential areas near aluminum reduction plant - 11.3 - 117 ng/cu m(14-15). Three
large South African cities - detected not quantified(6). Paris, France - 730-2100
parts/trillion, Zurich Switzerland - 320 parts/trillion(8). Torrance, CA during a
pollution episode - 2.9 - 3.3 ug/cu m(10). Glendora, CA during air pollution episode - 3.1
ug/cu m av daytime, 4.3 ug/cu m av nighttime(17). Chicago area homes - 43% frequency in
indoor air, 21% frequency of occurrence in outdoor air(9). Northern Italy - indoor air, 11
ug/cu m (mean), 70 ug/cu m (max); outdoor air, 2 ug/cu m (mean), 11 ug/cu m (max)(11).
SOURCE DOMINATED: US source dominated areas; 95 samples 400 parts/trillion median, 16000
parts/trillion max.(5). Allegheny Mt Tunnel, Pennsylvania Tpk. - 3.1 to 10.0 ug/cu m
(592-1910 parts/trillion)(filtered), 3.5 to 10.1 ug/cu m (nonfiltered), low values
correspond to low traffic volume(7). Air near hazardous sites - 0.1 - 0.88 ppb (mean), 5.2
ppb (max), near landfill, 0.08 ppb (mean), 0.31 ppb (max)(12). Gaseous effluents from
coal-fired power plants under near-ideal conditions - 0.01 - 1.8 ug/cu m(13). INDOOR AIR:
12 Canadian homes 1-77 ug/cu m, 13.9 ug/cu m, mean, whereas ambient air was ND-5 ug/cu m,
2.0 ug/cu m, mean(16).
Providence, RI: Air levels of naphthalene:
vapor: 0.0001 ug/cu m, particulate: 0.0025 ug/cu m; Kingston, RI: vapor: 0.0003 ug/cu m,
particulate: 0.0003 ug/cu m; Narragansett Bay, RI: vapor: 0.00005 ug/cu m, particulate:
0.000003 ug/cu m.
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION STUDIES OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS, MANY OF WHICH
ARE CARCINOGENIC, IN CITY AND SUBURBAN ATMOSPHERES INDICATE THAT THESE COMPOUNDS ARE
ASSOCIATED WITH PARTICLES HAVING MASS MEDIAN EQUIVILANT DIAMETER VALUES OF ABOUT 0.5 UM.
Food Survey Values:
Of 27,065 samples of foods collected and analyzed in 10 state laboratories in 1988 and
1989, only 2 contained naphthalene and neither
of these was of regulatory significance(1).
Plant Concentrations:
Southern Norway area, various species marine algae - not detected to 2109 ppb(1).
Occurs naturally in the essential oils of the roots of Radix and Herba ononidis
Fish/Seafood Concentrations:
Pike from Detroit River, and Carp and Pike from Hamilton Harbor - detected, not
quantified, Lake Trout from Lake Superior - detected, not quantified, estimated conc range
detected - 0.01 to 5 ppm(1). Cepangopaludina chinensis, Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton
Ontario - < 0.01 ppb(2). Polycheates 4.2 to 5.5 ppm, clam 0.43 ppm(3). Mussels,
Saudalfjord, Norway suggested source - ferro alloy smelter, 4 stations - not detected(4).
Mussels sampled near the Bekkelaget sewage treatment plant, Oslo, Norway - not
detected(5). Southern Norway Coast, mussels, 7 of 9 samples pos, trace to 516 ppb; various
invertebrates ND to 241 ppb, results not separable from methyl naphthalene(6).
Mussels and oysters from more than 100 US east, west, gulf coast sites, Woods Hole - 2.8
ppb avg, USEPA Natl Res Lab, Narragansett - 4.8 ppb avg Univ New Orleans, Center for
Bio-organic Studies 96 ppb avg(7). Several species Nigerian freshwater fish species,
traditionally smoked - 1.75 to 7.88 ppb, traditionally solar dried - 0.96 to 7.38 ppb,
oven dried - 0.19 to 4.42 ppb(8). March Point mussels, Strait of Juan de Fuca and Northern
Puget Sound, unpolluted area baseline study, 3 of 6 two week interval samples pos, 3.3 to
13 ppb(9). Commencement Bay in Puget Sound, WA, 1982 survey - highest level in bottom fish
0.51 ppm(10). Not detected in composite samples of fish from Great Lakes harbors and
tributary mouths in 1980-1981 survey(11).
Milk Concentrations:
Mother's milk from 4 USA urban areas - detected in 6 of 8 samples quantified.
Other Environmental Concentrations:
Coke oven: concentrations of naphthalene in
vapor: 11.35-1,120 ug/cu m, in particulate 0-4.40 ug/cu m.
Five municipal refuse incinerator fly ashes; ND to 460 ppb; 3 municipal refuse
incinerator mixed fly ash-bottom ash 1300 - 28,000 ppb(1).
Environmental Standards & Regulations:
FIFRA Requirements:
As the federal pesticide law FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive review of
older pesticides to consider their health and environmental effects and make decisions
about their future use. Under this pesticide reregistration program, EPA examines health
and safety data for pesticide active ingredients initially registered before November 1,
1984, and determines whether they are eligible for reregistration. In addition, all
pesticides must meet the new safety standard of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Naphthalene is found on List A, which contains most
food use pesticides and consists of the 194 chemical cases (or 350 individual active
ingredients) for which EPA issued registration standards prior to FIFRA, as amended in
1988. Case No: 0022; Pesticide type: Insecticide; Registration Standard Date: 09/01/81;
Case Status: OPP is reviewing data from the pesticide's producers regarding its human
health and/or environmental effects, or OPP is determining the pesticide's eligibility for
reregistration and developing the Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) document.;
Active ingredient (AI): Naphthalene; Data
Call-in (DCI) Date(s): 05/06/91, 10/13/95; AI Status: The producers of the pesticide has
made commitments to conduct the studies and pay the fees required for reregistration, and
are meeting those commitments in a timely manner.
Acceptable Daily Intakes:
The Ten-day Health Advisory (HA) for the 10 kg child is calculated as ... 0.53 mg/l
(rounded to 0.5 mg/l).
The Longer-term Health Advisory (HA) for a 10 kg child is calculated as ... 0.357 mg/l
(rounded to 0.4 mg/l). ... The Longer-term Health Advisory for a 70 kg adult is calculated
as ... 1.249 mg/l (rounded to 1 mg/l).
The Reference Dose (RfD), formerly called the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), /was
determined to be/ 0.00357 mg/kg/day (rounded to 0.004 mg/kg/day). ... The Drinking Water
Equivalent Level (DWEL) /was determined to be/ 0.1249 mg/l (rounded to 0.1 mg/l). ... The
Lifetime Health Advisory for a 70 kg adult /was calculated as/ 0.02498 mg/l (rounded to
0.02 mg/l).
TSCA Requirements:
Pursuant to section 8(d) of TSCA, EPA promulgated a model Health and Safety Data
Reporting Rule. The section 8(d) model rule requires manufacturers, importers, and
processors of listed chemical substances and mixtures to submit to EPA copies and lists of
unpublished health and safety studies. Naphthalene
is included on this list.
CERCLA Reportable Quantities:
Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the National Response
Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this designated hazardous substance,
in an amount equal to or greater than its reportable quantity of 100 lb or 45.4 kg. The
toll free number of the NRC is (800) 424-8802; In the Washington D.C. metropolitan area
(202) 426-2675. The rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR
302.4 (section IV. D.3.b).
RCRA Requirements:
U165; As stipulated in 40 CFR 261.33, when naphthalene,
as a commercial chemical product or manufacturing chemical intermediate or an
off-specification commercial chemical product or a manufacturing chemical intermediate,
becomes a waste, it must be managed according to Federal and/or State hazardous waste
regulations. Also defined as a hazardous waste is any residue, contaminated soil, water,
or other debris resulting from the cleanup of a spill, into water or on dry land, of this
waste. Generators of small quantities of this waste may qualify for partial exclusion from
hazardous waste regulations (40 CFR 261.5).
Atmospheric Standards:
Listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP) generally known or suspected to cause serious
health problems. The Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990, directs EPA to set standards
requiring major sources to sharply reduce routine emissions of toxic pollutants. EPA is
required to establish and phase in specific performance based standards for all air
emission sources that emit one or more of the listed pollutants. Naphthalene
is included on this list.
Clean Water Act Requirements:
Toxic pollutant designated pursuant to section 307(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act and is
subject to effluent limitations.
Designated as a hazardous substance under section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act and further regulated by the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 and
1978. These regulations apply to discharges of this substance.
Federal Drinking Water Guidelines:
EPA 20 ug/l
State Drinking Water Standards:
(NJ) NEW JERSEY 300 ug/l
State Drinking Water Guidelines:
(ME) MAINE 25 ug/l
(MN) MINNESOTA 300 ug/l
(WA) WASHINGTON 14 ug/l
(WI) WISCONSIN 40 ug/l
(FL) FLORIDA 6.8 ug/l
Chemical/Physical Properties:
Molecular Formula:
C10-H8
Molecular Weight:
128.16
Color/Form:
WHITE, CRYSTALLINE FLAKES OR SOLID
WHITE SCALES, BALLS, POWDER OR CAKES
MONOCLINIC PLATES FROM ALCOHOL
Colorless to brown solid ... [Note: Shipped as a molten solid].
Odor:
AROMATIC ODOR
ODOR OF ... MOTH BALLS
... Odor of mothballs ...
Boiling Point:
217.9 DEG C @ 760 MM HG
Melting Point:
80.2 DEG C
Corrosivity:
Melted naphthalene will attack some forms of
plastics, rubber, and coatings.
Critical Temperature & Pressure:
CRIT TEMP: 887.4 DEG F= 475.2 DEG C= 748.4 DEG K
CRIT PRESSURE: 588 PSI= 40.0 ATM= 4.05 MEGANEWTONS/SQ M
Heat of Combustion:
-16,720 BTU/LB= -9287 CAL/G= -388.8X10+5 JOULES/KG
Heat of Vaporization:
43.5 kJ/mol
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient:
log Kow= 3.30
Solubilities:
Soluble in alcohol, acetate
1 G/3.5 ML BENZENE OR TOLUENE
1 G/8 ML OLIVE OIL OR TURPENTINE
1 G/2 ML CHLOROFORM OR CARBON TETRACHLORIDE
1 G/1.2 ML CARBON DISULFIDE
VERY SOL IN ETHER, HYDRONAPHTHALENES
VERY SOL IN FIXED & VOLATILE OILS
30 MG/L IN WATER; ... VERY SOL IN 1,2-DICHLOROMETHANE
SOL IN ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE
Spectral Properties:
MAX ABSORPTION (ALCOHOL): 221 NM (LOG E= 5.04); 275.5 NM (LOG E= 3.76); 286 NM (LOG E=
3.59); 311 NM (LOG E= 2.38)
SADTLER REF NUMBER: 865 (IR, PRISM): 169 (IR, GRATING)
ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION: SEVERAL CHARACTERISTIC BANDS BETWEEN 217.5 & 320 NM IN
HEXANE
PURPLE FLUORESCENCE IN HG LIGHT (PETROLEUM ETHER SOLN)
INDEX OF REFRACTION: 1.58212 AT 100 DEG C/D
INDEX OF REFRACTION: 1.4003 @ 24 DEG C/D; 1.5898 @ 85 DEG C/D
Intense mass spectral peaks: 128 m/z (100%), 51 m/z (13%), 129 m/z (11%), 64 m/z (11%)
IR: 5547 (Coblentz Society Spectral Collection)
UV: 265 (Sadtler Research Laboratories Spectral Collection)
NMR: 62 (Sadtler Research Laboratories Prism Collection)
MASS: 553 (Atlas of Mass Spectral Data, John Wiley & Sons, New York)
Surface Tension:
LIQUID SURFACE TENSION: 31.8 DYNES/CM= 0.0318 NEWTONS/M AT 100 DEG C
Vapor Density:
4.42
Vapor Pressure:
0.01 kPa
Relative Evaporation Rate:
Much less than 1. (Butyl acetate= 1)
Other Chemical/Physical Properties:
SUBLIMES APPRECIABLY @ TEMP ABOVE MELTING POINT
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: 145 BTU/LB= 80.7 CAL/G= 3.38X10+5 JOULES/KG
Naphthalene carries two nonequivalent sets of
hydrogen atoms. Therefore, two isomers of every monosubstituted naphthalene
are known.
Triple point, deg C: 80.28. Heat of fusion at triple point, kJ/mol: 18.979.
Heat capacity (at 15.5 deg C and 101.3 kPa), J/(molxK): 159.28. Heat of formation (at
25 deg C), kJ/mol: Solid: 78.53; gas: 150.58.
Chemical Safety & Handling:
DOT Emergency Guidelines:
Fire or explosion: Flammable/combustible material. May be ignited by friction, heat,
sparks or flames. Some may burn rapidly with flare burning effect. Powders, dusts,
shavings, borings, turnings or cuttings may explode or burn with explosive violence.
Substance may be transported in a molten form. May re-ignite after fire is extinguished. /Naphthalene, crude; Naphthalene,
molten; Naphthalene, refined/
Health: Fire may produce irritating and/or toxic gases. Contact may cause burns to skin
and eyes. Contact with molten substance may cause severe burns to skin and eyes. Runoff
from fire control may cause pollution. /Naphthalene,
crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
Public safety: CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If
Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number listed on
the inside back cover. Isolate spill or leak area immediately for at least 10 to 25 meters
(30 to 80 feet) in all directions. Keep unauthorized personnel away. Stay upwind. Keep out
of low areas. /Naphthalene, crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
Protection clothing: Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection. /Naphthalene, crude; Naphthalene,
molten; Naphthalene, refined/
Evacuation: Large spill: Consider initial downwind evacuation for at least 100 meters
(330 feet). Fire: If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800
meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2
mile) in all directions. /Naphthalene, crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
Fire: Small fires: Dry chemical, CO2, sand, earth, water spray or regular foam. Large
fires: Water spray, fog or regular foam. Move containers from fire area if you can do it
without risk. Fire involving tanks or car/trailer loads: Cool containers with flooding
quantities of water until well after fire is out. For massive fire, use unmanned hose
holders or monitor nozzles; if this is impossible, withdraw from area and let fire burn.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration
of tank. ALWAYS stay away from the ends of tanks. /Naphthalene,
crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
Spill or leak: ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in
immediate area). Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Small dry spills: With
clean shovel place material into clean, dry container and cover loosely; move containers
from spill area. Large spills: Wet down with water and dike for later disposal. Prevent
entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas. /Naphthalene,
crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
First aid: Move victim to fresh air. Call emergency medical care. Apply artificial
respiration if victim is not breathing. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of contact with substance,
immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes. Removal of
solidified molten material from skin requires medical assistance. Keep victim warm and
quiet. Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved, and take
precautions to protect themselves. /Naphthalene,
crude; Naphthalene, molten; Naphthalene,
refined/
Odor Threshold:
Odor detection in water 6.80 ppm (purity not specified)
At least as low as 0.3 ppm.
Odor threshold (water) 0.021 mg/l (w/v); odor threshold (air) 0.084 ppm (v/v)
Skin, Eye and Respiratory Irritations:
Irritating to skin ... does occur. Vapors can cause eye irritation at concn of 15 ppm
in air. ...
Upon direct skin contact, naphthalene is a
primary irritant.
NFPA Hazard Classification:
Health: 2. 2= Materials hazardous to health, but areas may be entered freely with
full-face mask self-contained breathing apparatus which provides eye protection.
Flammability: 2. 2= Material which must be moderately heated before ignition will
occur. Water spray may be used to extinguish the fire because the material can be cooled
below its flash point.
Reactivity: 0. 0= Materials which (in themselves) are normally stable even under fire
exposure conditions and which are not reactive with water. Normal fire fighting procedures
may be used.
Flammable Limits:
LOWER 0.9%; UPPER 5.9%.
Flash Point:
174 DEG F (OPEN CUP); 190 DEG F (CLOSED CUP)
Autoignition Temperature:
526 deg C
Fire Fighting Procedures:
USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL, OR FOAM. FOAM OR DIRECT WATER SPRAY ON MOLTEN NAPHTHALENE MAY CAUSE EXTENSIVE FOAMING.
If material is on fire or involved in fire: Do not extinguish fire unless flow can be
stopped. Use water in flooding quantities as fog. Cool all affected containers with
flooding quantities of water. Apply water from as far a distance as possible. Solid
streams of water may be ineffective. Use alcohol foam, carbon dioxide, or dry chemical.
Toxic Combustion Products:
Toxic gases and vapors (such as dense acrid smoke and carbon monoxide) may be released
in a fire involving naphthalene.
Firefighting Hazards:
Molten naphthalene spatters and foams in
contact with water.
Explosive Limits & Potential:
MODERATE, IN FORM OF DUST, WHEN EXPOSED TO HEAT OR FLAME.
VAPOR FORMS EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES WITH AIR.
Hazardous Reactivities & Incompatibilities:
NAPHTHALENE ... WILL REACT VIOLENTLY WITH
CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE.
Strong oxidizers, chromic anhydride.
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health:
250 ppm
Protective Equipment & Clothing:
USA BUREAU OF MINES APPROVED ORGANIC VAPOR CANISTER UNIT (USBM TYPE B), RUBBER GLOVES,
CHEMICAL SAFETY GOGGLES; FACE SHIELD, COVERALLS &/OR RUBBER APRON, RUBBER SHOES OR
BOOTS.
Respiratory protection for napthalene: Minimum respiratory protection required above 10
ppm: Particulate and vapor concentration: 500 ppm or less: Any chemical cartridge
respirator with a full facepiece and organic vapor cartridge(s) in combination with a dust
filter, or gas mask with an organic vapor canister (chin-style front- or back-mounted
canister) with a dust filter, or any supplied-air respirator with a full facepiece,
helmet, or hood, or any self-contained breathing apparatus with a full facepiece. Greater
than 500 ppm or entry and escape from unknown concentrations: Any self-contained breathing
apparatus with a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or other positive
pressure mode, or a combination respirator which includes a Type C supplied-air respirator
with a full facepiece operated in pressure-demand or other positive pressure or
continuous-flow mode and an auxillary self-contained breathing apparatus operated in
pressure-demand or other positive pressure mode; Escape: Any gas mask providing protection
against organic vapors and particulates, or any escape self-contained breathing apparatus.
Employees should be provided with and required to use impervious clothing, gloves,
face-shields (eight-inch minimum), and other appropriate protective clothing necessary to
prevent any possibility of skin contact with naphthalene.
/IN/ EXPOSURE OF WORKMEN TO HIGH NAPHTHALENE
CONCN, THE USE OF RESP PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT & CHEM-TYPE PLASTIC GOGGLES IS ESSENTIAL.
PLASTIC FOOTWEAR & HANDWEAR MAY BE REQUIRED TO PROTECT SKIN. EMERGENCY SHOWERS &
EYE FOUNTAINS SHOULD BE INSTALLED AT WORKPLACES WHERE THERE IS A DANGER OF EYE OR SKIN
CONTAMINATION. SAFETY CLOTHING INCL APRONS & FACE SHIELDS ARE A NECESSARY PRECAUTION
FOR PERSONS HANDLING LIQUID NAPHTHALENE THAT MAY
COME IN CONTACT WITH WATER.
Recommendations for respirator selection. Max concn for use: 100 ppm. Respirator
Class(es): Any chemical cartridge respirator with organic vapor cartridge(s) in
combination with a dust and mist filter. May require eye protection. Any supplied-air
respirator. May require eye protection.
Recommendations for respirator selection. Max concn for use: 250 ppm. Respirator
Class(es): Any supplied-air respirator operated in a continuous flow mode. May require eye
protection. Any chemical cartridge respirator with a full facepiece and organic vapor
cartridge(s) in combination with a high-efficiency particulate filter. Any powered,
air-purifying respirator with organic vapor cartridge(s) in combination with a dust and
mist filter. May require eye protection. Any self-contained breathing apparatus with a
full facepiece. Any supplied-air respirator with a full facepiece.
Recommendations for respirator selection. Condition: Emergency or planned entry into
unknown concn or IDLH conditions: Respirator Class(es): Any self-contained breathing
apparatus that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure mode. Any supplied-air respirator that has a full facepiece and is
operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode in combination with an
auxiliary self-contained breathing apparatus operated in pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure mode.
Recommendations for respirator selection. Condition: Escape from suddenly occurring
respiratory hazards: Respirator Class(es): Any air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator
(gas mask) with a chin-style, front- or back-mounted organic vapor canister having a
high-efficiency particulate filter. Any appropriate escape-type, self-contained breathing
apparatus.
Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent skin contact.
Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact.
Preventive Measures:
Contact lenses should not be worn when working with this chemical.
SRP: The scientific literature for the use of contact lenses in industry is
conflicting. The benefit or detrimental effects of wearing contact lenses depend not only
upon the substance, but also on factors including the form of the substance,
characteristics and duration of the exposure, the uses of other eye protection equipment,
and the hygiene of the lenses. However, there may be individual substances whose
irritating or corrosive properties are such that the wearing of contact lenses would be
harmful to the eye. In those specific cases, contact lenses should not be worn. In any
event, the usual eye protection equipment should be worn even when contact lenses are in
place.
Heat only in specifically-designed lamps. /Moth repellents/
SRP: Local exhaust ventilation should be applied wherever there is an incidence of
point source emissions or dispersion of regulated contaminants in the work area.
Ventilation control of the contaminant as close to its point of generation is both the
most economical and safest method to minimize personnel exposure to airborne contaminants.
Skin that becomes contaminated with liquid naphthalene
should be immediately washed or showered with soap or mild detergent and water to remove
any naphthalene.
Eating and smoking should not be permitted in areas where liquid naphthalene
is handled, processed, or stored.
If an employees' clothing becomes contaminated with solid naphthalene,
employees should change into uncontaminated clothing before leaving the work area.
Clothing contaminated with naphthalene should be
placed into closed containers for storage until it can be discarded or until provision is
made for the removal of the naphthalene from the
clothing. If the clothing is to be laundered or cleaned to remove the naphthalene,
the person performing the operation should be informed of naphthalene's
hazardous properties. Non-impervious clothing which becomes contaminated with naphthalene should be removed promptly and not reworn
until the naphthalene is removed from the
clothing.
If the use of respirators is necessary, the only respirators permitted are those that
have been approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (formerly Mining
Enforcement and Safety Administration) or by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. In addition to respirator selection, a complete respiratory protection
program should be instituted which includes regular training, maintenance, inspection,
cleaning, and evaluation.
If material is not on fire and not involved in fire: Keep sparks, flames, and other
sources of ignition away. Keep material out of water sources and sewers. Build dikes to
contain flow as necessary.
Molten naphthalene tank vents must be
adequately heated and insulated to prevent the accumulation of sublimed and solidified naphthalene. A collapsed tank can result easily from
pumping from a tank with a plugged vent.
SRP: Contaminated protective clothing should be segregated in such a manner so that
there is no direct personal contact by personnel who handle, dispose, or clean the
clothing. Quality assurance to ascertain the completeness of the cleaning procedures
should be implemented before the decontaminated protective clothing is returned for reuse
by the workers. Contaminated clothing should not be taken home at end of shift, but should
remain at employee's place of work for cleaning.
In case of aquatic contamination notify local health and wildlife officials and
operators of nearby water intakes.
The worker should immediately wash the skin when it becomes contaminated.
Work clothing that becomes wet or significantly contaminated should be removed and
replaced.
Workers whose clothing may have become contaminated should change into uncontaminated
clothing before leaving the work premises.
Shipment Methods and Regulations:
No person may /transport,/ offer or accept a hazardous material for transportation in
commerce unless that person is registered in conformance ... and the hazardous material is
properly classed, described, packaged, marked, labeled, and in condition for shipment as
required or authorized by ... /the hazardous materials regulations (49 CFR 171-177)./
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations are
published by the IATA Dangerous Goods Board pursuant to IATA Resolutions 618 and 619 and
constitute a manual of industry carrier regulations to be followed by all IATA Member
airlines when transporting hazardous materials.
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code lays down basic principles for
transporting hazardous chemicals. Detailed recommendations for individual substances and a
number of recommendations for good practice are included in the classes dealing with such
substances. A general index of technical names has also been compiled. This index should
always be consulted when attempting to locate the appropriate procedures to be used when
shipping any substance or article.
Storage Conditions:
Without inert-gas blanketing and at the temperature normally used for the storage of
molten naphthalene, ie, 90 deg C, the vapors
above the liquid are within the flammability limits. Thus, storage tanks containing molten
naphthalene have a combustible mixture in the
vapor space and care must be taken to eliminate all sources of ignition around such
systems. Naphthalene dust can form explosive
mixtures with air which necessitates the design and operation of solid handling systems.
PROTECT AGAINST PHYSICAL DAMAGE. STORE IN COOL PLACE, AWAY FROM SOURCES OF HEAT &
IGNITION. KEEP AWAY FROM MOISTURE AND OXIDIZERS.
Cleanup Methods:
If naphthalene is spilled, the following
steps should be taken: 1) Ventilate area of spill. 2) For small quantities, sweep onto
paper or other suitable material, place in an appropriate container and burn in a safe
place (such as a fume hood).
Environmental considerations: Land spill: Dig a pit, pond, lagoon, or holding area to
contain liquid or solid material. /SRP: If time permits, pits, ponds, lagoons, soak holes,
or holding areas should be sealed with an impermeable flexible membrane liner./ Cover
solids with a plastic sheet to prevent dissolving in rain or fire fighting water.
Environmental considerations: Water spill: Use natural deep water pockets, excavated
lagoons, or sand bag barriers to trap material at bottom. If dissolved, apply activated
charcoal at ten times the spilled amount in the region of 10 ppm or greater concn. Remove
trapped material with suction hoses. Use mechanical dredges or lifts to remove immobilized
masses of pollutants and precipitates.
The particle-bound portion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) can be removed by
sedimentation, flocculation, and filtration processes. The remaining one-third dissolved
PAH usually requires oxidation for partial removal/transformation. /Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons/
Data on the solubilization of p-dichlorobenzene, naphthalene,
and biphenyl in aqueous solutions of sodium dodecylsulfate (0-100 nM concentration)
indicate increases in effective solubilities of these hydrophobic compounds by factors of
roughly 20 to 100. p-Dichlorobenzene is effectively removed from spiked clay-sand mixtures
by leaching with sodium dodecylsulfate solutions in laboratory columns. Surfactant
solutions loaded with p-dichlorobenzene are satisfactorily treated by gentle extraction
with hexane, and the recovered surfactant solution satisfactorily solubilizes biphenyl. A
simple model for predicting the solubilization behavior of surfactants is developed and
tested experimentally.
Disposal Methods:
Generators of waste (equal to or greater than 100 kg/mo) containing this contaminant,
EPA hazardous waste number U165, must conform with USEPA regulations in storage,
transportation, treatment and disposal of waste.
A GOOD CANDIDATE FOR ROTARY KILN INCINERATION AT A TEMPERATURE RANGE OF 820 TO 1,600
DEG C AND RESIDENCE TIMES OF SECONDS FOR LIQUIDS AND GASES, AND HOURS FOR SOLIDS. A GOOD
CANDIDATE FOR FLUIDIZED BED INCINERATION AT A TEMPERATURE RANGE OF 450 TO 980 DEG C AND
RESIDENCE TIMES OF SECONDS FOR LIQUIDS AND GASES, AND LONGER FOR SOLIDS.
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for naphthalene: biological treatment.
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for naphthalene: chemical precipitation.
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for naphthalene: solvent extraction.
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for naphthalene: activated carbon.
Occupational Exposure Standards:
OSHA Standards:
Permissible Exposure Limit: Table Z-1 8-hr Time Weighted Avg: 10 ppm (50 mg/cu m).
Vacated 1989 OSHA PEL TWA 10 ppm (50 mg/cu m); STEL 15 ppm (75 mg/cu m) is still
enforced in some states.
Threshold Limit Values:
8 hr Time Weighted Avg (TWA): 10 ppm; 15 min Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL):15 ppm
A4. A4= Not classifiable as a human carcinogen.
NIOSH Recommendations:
Recommended Exposure Limit: 10 Hr Time-Weighted Avg: 10 ppm (50 mg/cu m).
Recommended Exposure Limit: 15 Min Short-Term Exposure Limit: 15 ppm (75 mg/cu m).
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health:
250 ppm
Other Occupational Permissible Levels:
West Germany: 10 ppm; East Germany and USSR: 4 ppm
Manufacturing/Use Information:
Major Uses:
MFR OF PHTHALIC & ANTHRANILIC ACIDS, ... NAPHTHOLS, ... NAPHTHYLAMINES, SULFONIC
ACID, ... SYNTHETIC RESINS, CELLULOID, LAMPBLACK, SMOKELESS POWDER, ... HYDRONAPHTHALENES.
Is used in the preparation of anthraquinone.
Is used for the manufacturing of indigo.
Is used in the formation of perylene via the intermolecular Scholl reaction.
A high yielding (98%) process from the oxidn by microrganisms, has been developed in
Japan for the production of salicylic acid from naphthalene.
CHEM INT FOR PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE
CHEM INT FOR 1-NAPHTHYL-N-METHYLCARBAMATE INSECTICIDE
CHEM INT FOR BETA-NAPHTHOL & SYNTHETIC TANNING CHEMS
CHEM INT FOR SURFACTANTS-EG, NAPHTHALENE
SULFONATES
CHEM INT FOR 1-NAPHTHYLAMINE (FORMER USE)
MEDICIATION (VET)
Ingredient of some moth repellants and toilet bowl deodorants.
Sulfonation of naphthalene with sulfuric acid
produces mono-, di-, tri-, and tetranaphthalenesulfuric acids.
Intestinal vermifuge and wood preservative. /Former use/
Manufacturers:
Allied-Signal Inc, Hq, Columbia Road and Park Ave, Morristown, NJ 07960, (201)
455-2000; Engineered Materials Sector; Production site: 3330 S 3rd St, Ironton, OH 45638
Chemical Exchange Industries, Inc, Hq, 3813 Buffalo Speedway, Houston, TX 77006, (713)
526-8291; Subsidiary: Advanced Aromatics Chemical Company; Production site: Baytown, TX
77520
Koppers Industries, Inc, Hq, 436 7th Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, (412) 227-2001;
Production sites: Follansbee, WV 26037
Texaco Inc, Hq, 2000 Westchester Ave, White Plains, NY 10650, (914) 253-4000;
Subsidiary: Texaco Chemical Company, 4800 Fournace Place, PO Box 430, Bellaire, TX 77401,
(713) 666-8000; Production site: Delaware City, DE 19706
Methods of Manufacturing:
PREPN: MOST ABUNDANT SINGLE CONSTITUENT OF COAL TAR. DRY COAL TAR CONTAINS ABOUT 11%.
CRYSTALLIZES FROM MIDDLE OR "CARBOLIC OIL" FRACTION OF DISTILLED TAR. PURIFIED
BY HOT PRESSING, WHICH MAY BE FOLLOWED BY WASHING WITH SULFURIC ACID, SODIUM HYDROXIDE,
& WATER, THEN BY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OR BY SUBLIMATION.
General Manufacturing Information:
Naphthalene usually is sold commercially
according to its freezing or solidification point because there is a correlation between
the freezing point and the naphthalene content
of the product. The correlation depends on the type and relative amount of impurities
present. Because the freezing point can be changed appreciably by the presence of water,
values and specifications are listed on a dry, wet, or as-received basis using an
appropriate method agreed upon between buyer and seller.
ONLY PURE GRADES, FREE FROM DUST SHOULD BE USED FOR FUMIGATION
USE OF NAPHTHALENE AS MOTH REPELLENT AND
INSECTICIDE IS DECR DUE TO INTRODUCTION OF CHLORINATED CMPD SUCH AS PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE.
Naphthalene, anthracene, and biphenyl were
individually adsorbed on fly ash from a coal-fired powder plant and treated with hydrogen
chloride (g) in nitrogen at 150 deg C. Products from the reaction included mono- and
poly-chlorinated cogeners of parent polyaromatic hydrocarbon at total yields of ca 9-15%
for all products. Brominated aromatic products, observed in indentical studies using
municipal incinerator fly ash, were not detected in significant amounts. The results
suggest that the absence of chlorinated compounds in coal combustion effluent can not be
attributed to chemical properties of fly ash surfaces involved in heterogeneous gas-solid
phase reactions. Alternate explanations should be sought in the low levels of hydrogen
chloride in the effluent stream or the chemistry of the combustion event.
Formulations/Preparations:
GRADES: BY MELTING POINT, 74 DEG C MIN (CRUDE) TO ABOVE 79 DEG C (REFINED);
SCINTILLATION (80-81 DEG C)
Produced in several grades characterized by solidification point ... petroleum naphthalene ... one grade ... 79.0 deg C minimum. Coal
tar naphthalene ... 78 deg crude, 77.5 deg low
sulfur, and an 80 deg refined material with a purity of 99.6%
Impurities:
The main impurity in crude 78 deg C coal tar naphthalene
is sulfur which is present in the form of thionaphthalene (1-3%). Methyl- and
dimethylnaphthalenes also are present (1-2 wt %) with lesser amounts of indene,
methylindenes, tar acids, and tar bases.
Consumption Patterns:
CHEM INT FOR PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE, 58%; CHEM INT FOR 1-NAPHTHYL-N-METHYLCARBAMATE, 21%;
CHEM INT FOR BETA-NAPHTHOL, 8%; CHEM INT FOR SYNTHETIC TANNING AGENTS, 6%; MOTH REPELLANT,
3%; CHEM INT FOR SURFACTANTS, 3%; OTHER, 1% (1980 EST)
Chem intermediate for phthalic anhydride, 50%; chem intermediate for carbamate
insecticides, 20%; chemical intermediate for naphthalene
sulfonic acids, 20%; miscellaneous, 10% (1984)
Phthalic anhydride, 60%; exports, 15%; 1-naphthol, tetralin, 1-naphthyl methyl
carbamate insecticide, 10%; tanning agents, 8%; surfactants and other uses, 7% (1985)
CHEMICAL PROFILE: Naphthalene. Phthalic
anhydride, 60%; 1-naphthyl methyl carbamate insecticide and related products (tetralin and
1-naphthol), 10%; dispersant chemicals, 10%; moth repellent, 6%; synthetic tanning agents,
5%; miscellaneous uses, 5%; exports, 4%.
CHEMICAL PROFILE: Naphthalene. Demand: 1986:
250 million lb; 1987: 255 million lb; 1991 /projected/: 270 million lb (Includes exports,
imports are negligible).
U. S. Production:
(1974) 2.9X10+11 metric tons.
(1979) 3.24X10+11 g
(1980) 3.16X10+11 g
(1982) 3.17X10+11 g
Primary products from petroleum and natural gas, thousands of metric tons: naphthalene, 1977: 151.
(1977) 2.27X10+11 G
(1980) 2.04X10+11 G
Naphthalene production will grow at about GNP
rate over the next five years. Coal-tar naphthalene
production remained static from 1973-1977 at about 1.36X10+11 g. Little change is seen.
The total naphthalene capacity for all USA
producers in 1979 was 324,000 metric tons with 206,000+ produced from coal tar and
118,000+ from petroleum.
(1984) 1.27X10+11 g
U. S. Imports:
Naphthalene imports provided about 10-20% of
the material consumed in the USA until ca 1963 when that percentage dropped to and leveled
at less than 5%.
(1977) 4.1X10+9 G
(1982) 4.7X10+9 G
(1985) 2.22X10+7 g /Naphthalene solidifying
under 79 deg C/
(1985) 4.79X10+7 g /Naphthalene solidifying
at 79 deg C and over/
U. S. Exports:
(1981) 2.0X10+9 G
(1985) 5.92X10+9 g
Laboratory Methods:
Clinical Laboratory Methods:
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (REVERSE PHASE) ANALYSIS OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS IN SKIN LIPIDS. /POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS/
Analytic Laboratory Methods:
Gas-Liquid chromatography is used extensively to determine the naphthalene
content of mixtures. Naphthalene can be
separated easily from thionaphthene, the methyl- and dimethylnaphthalenes, and other
aromatics. Analysis of the various other impurities may require the use of high resolution
capillary columns. Other tests that are routinely performed on commercial grades of naphthalene include: evaporation residues (ASTM D
2232), APHA color (ASTM D 1686), water (ASTM D 95), and acid-wash color (ASTM D 2279).
Methods to measure sulfur content are the oxygen-bomb combustion method (ASTM D 129), the
lamp combustion method (ASTM D 1266), and the Raney nickel reduction technique.
EPA Method 610: A high performance liquid chromatography method for the analysis of naphthalene in municipal and industrial discharges,
consists of a stainless steel column, 25 cm x 2.6 mm ID, with reverse phase HC-ODS Sil-X,
5 micron size. with a fluorescence or UV detector. Isocratic elution is done for 5 min
using acetonitrile/water (4:6), then linear gradient elution to 100% acetonitrile over 25
min at 0.5 ml/min flow rate. Inject 5 to 25 ul of the sample extract or std into the HPLC
using a high pressure syringe or a constant volume sample injection loop. This method has
a detection limit of 1.8 ug/l and an overall precision of 0.41 times the average recovery
+ 0.74, over a working range of 0.1 to 425 ug/l.
EPA Method 1625. Isotope Dilution Capillary Column Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
method for the determination of semivolatile organic compounds in municipal and the
industrial discharges. By adding a known amount of a labeled compound to every sample
prior to purging, a correction for recovery of the pollutant can be made. If labeled
compounds are not available, an internal standard method is used. Under the prescribed
conditions, for the labeled, unlabeled naphthalene
the method has a minimum detection level of 10 ug/l, and 10 ug/l, respectively and an
initial precision of 20 ug/l, and 39 ug/l, respectively. The accuracy ranges for the
labled, unlabeled compound are 80 to 139 ug/l, and 28 to 157 ug/l, respectively. The
labeled compound recovery is 14 to 305%.
AN ANALYTICAL METHOD INVOLVING A SINGLE TLC SEPARATION OF THE CYCLOHEXANE-SOLUBLE
FRACTION OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER INTO 3 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON FRACTIONS
& 1 ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON FRACTION SUITABLE FOR GLC ANALYSIS IS DEVELOPED &
APPLIED. THE METHOD IS SIMPLE, RAPID & SUITABLE FOR ROUTINE ANALYSIS OF THESE
COMPOUNDS IN AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER. /POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS/
A TLC/HPLC (HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY) PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINATION OF
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH) OCCURRING IN ASPHALT FUMES (ADSORBED ON A
PARTICULATE MATTER) IS DESCRIBED. THE METHOD IS BASED ON THE EXTRACTION OF ASPHALT FUME
PARTICLES, COLLECTED ON GLASS-FIBER FILTERS, USING CARBON TETRACHLORIDE. A CLEAN UP STEP
IS AIDED BY A TLC PROCEDURE ON ALUMINUM TRIOXIDE THINLAYER PLATES, USING A MIXTURE OF
CYCLOHEXANE/ACETONE/ETHER AS THE MOBILE PHASE. UNDER UV-LIGHT, THE PAH ARE INDICATED AS
FLUORESCENT SPOTS. SEPARATION OF THE COLLECTED PAH INTO INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS & THEIR
IDENTIFICATION IS PERFORMED BY THE AID OF A HPLC PROCEDURE. /POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS/
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH COMPRISING A COMBINATION OF GLASS CAPILLARY GC, MASS
SPECTROMETRY, LIQ CHROMATOGRAPHY & UV SPECTROMETRY WAS USED FOR UNAMBIGUOUS
IDENTIFICATION OF POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBON IN AIRBORNE PARTICULATES. LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY WITH ON-LINE UV SPECTRAL SCANNING WAS VALUABLE FOR DIFFERENTIATION OF
ISOMERIC & COELUTING PAH. THE ADVANTAGES OF THIS APPROACH OVER GC/MS ALONE WERE
ILLUSTRATED. A SIMPLE, 1-STEP PROCEDURE FOR ISOLATION OF PAH BY PREPARATIVE TLC IS ALSO
REPORTED. /POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS/
A 4-STEP METHOD FOR THE REPRODUCIBLE ANALYSIS OF POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN
SMALL QUANTITIES OF CIGARETTE SMOKE CONDENSATE (CSC) IS PRESENTED. PAH WERE ISOLATED FROM
AS LITTLE AS 1 G OF CIGARETTE SMOKE CONDENSATE BY SOLVENT PARTITION, COLUMN
CHROMATOGRAPHY, & ANALYSIS GEL FILTRATION (GF). THE GEL FILTRATION ISOLATE WAS
ANALYZED BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY. /POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS/
EPA 8270. Capillary Column Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrophotometry. This method is
applicable for the determination of semivolatile organic compounds in extracts prepared
from all types of solid wastes matrices, soils, and groundwater. This method is applicable
to quantify most acidic, basic, and neutral organic compounds that are soluble in
methylene chloride and are capable of being eluted without derivatization as sharp peaks
from a capillary column (DB-5 or equivalent). Under the prescribed conditions, for naphthalene the method detection limit is 30.1 ug/l.
The precision and a method accuracy were found to be directly related to the concentration
of the analyte and essentially independent of the sample matrix.
NIOSH Method 5506. Analyte: Naphthalene.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: High performance liquid chromotography fluoresence/ultra violet
detection. For naphthalene this method has an
estimated detection of 0.25 ng/sample. The overall precision/RSD is 0.125. Applicability:
The working range for naphthalene is 1 to 50
ug/cu m for a 400 liter air sample. Interferences: Any compound which elutes at the same
high performance liquid chromatography retention time may interefere.
NIOSH Method 5515. Analyte: Naphthalene.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: Gas chromatography, capillary column, flame ionization detector.
For naphthalene this method has an estimated
detection limit of 0.3 to 0.5 ug/sample. Applicability: The working range for naphthalene is 3 to 150 ug/cu m for a 400 liter air
sample by high performance liquid chromatography. Interferences: Any compound which elutes
at the same gas chromatography, retention time may interfere.
NIOSH Method S292. Analyte: Naphthalene.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: Gas chromatography. Method Evaluation: Method was validated over
the range of 19.3 to 83 mg/cu m using a 200 liter sample. Precision (CVt): 0.055.
Applicability: Under the conditions of sample size (200 l) the useful range is 15 to 150
mg/cu m. Interferences: A compound with the same retention time as the analyte is an
interference.
EPA Method 8100. Gas Chromatography Method for the detection of ppb levels of certain
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons including naphthalene
in solid waste. (Note: The gas chromatographic method described here cannot adequately
resolve the following four pairs of compounds: anthracene and phenanthrene; chrysene and
benzo(a)anthracene; benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(k)fluoranthene; and
dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene). Appropriate sample extraction
techniques must be used prior to analysis. Detection is achieved with a flame ionization
detector. Precision and method accuracy were found to be directly related to the
concentration of the analyte and essentially independent of the sample matrix.
EPA Method 8250. Packed Column Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Technique for the
determination of semivolatile organic compounds in extracts prepared from all types of
solid waste matrices, soil, and groundwater. This method is applicable to quantify most
neutral, acidic, and basic organic compounds that are soluble in methylene chloride and
capable of being eluted wtih derivatization as sharp peaks from a gas chromatographic
packed column. Under the prescribed conditions, naphthalene
has a detection limit of 1.6 ug/l. Precision and method accuracy were found to be directly
related to the concentration of the analyte and essentially independent of the sample
matrix.
EPA Method 8310. High Performance Liquid Chromatography with UV/flame ionization
detection for the determination of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Under the prescribed
conditions, naphthalene has a detection limit of
1.8 ug/l. Precision and method accuracy were found to be directly related to the
concentration of the analyte and essentially independent of the sample matrix.
EPA Method 502.2: Purge-and-Trap Capillary Column Gas Chromatography with
Photoionization and Electrolytic Conductivity Detectors in Series. The method is
applicable for the determination of volatile organic compounds in finished drinking water,
raw source water, or drinking water in any treatment stage. For naphthalene
the method has a detection limit of 0.06 ug/l, a percent recovery of 102%, and a standard
deviation of 6.3 using the photoionization detector; no results were given for the
electrolytic conductivity detector.
EPA Method 503.1. Purge-and-Trap Gas Chromatography with a Photoionization Detector.
The method is applicable for the determination of volatile aromatic and unsaturated
organic compounds in finished drinking water, raw source water, or drinking water in any
treatment stage. For naphthalene the method has
a detection limit of 0.04 ug/l and a relative standard deviation of 14.8%. Overall
precision and method accuracy were found to be directly related to the concentration of
the analyte essentially independent of sample matrix.
EPA Method 625. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Method for the analysis of
acid/base/neutral extractables including naphthalene
in municipal and industrial discharges. Under the prescribed conditions for naphthalene the method has a detection limit of 1.6
ug/l. Precision and method accuracy were found to be directly related to the concentration
of the parameter and essentially independent of the sample matrix.
Sampling Procedures:
Macro-reticular resins. XAD- 2 and XAD- 7.
NIOSH Method 5506. Analyte: Napthalene. Matrix: Air. Sampler. Filter plus sorbent (2
um, 37 mm polytetrafluoroethylene plus washed XAD-2,100 mg/50 mg). Flow Rate: 2 l/min:
Sample Size: 400 liter. Shipment: Transfer filters to culture tubes; wrap sorbent and
culture tubes in aluminum foil, ship @ 0 deg C. Sample Stability: Unknown; protect from
heat and UV radiation.
NIOSH Method 5515. Analyte: Naphthalene.
Matrix: Air. Sampler: Filter plus sorbent (2 um, 37 mm PTFE & washed XAD-2, 100 mg/50
mg). Flow Rate: 2 l/min: Sample Size: 400-liters. Shipment: Transfer filters to culture
tubes; wrap sorbent and culture tubes in aluminum foil; ship @ 0 deg C. Sample Stability:
Unknown, protect from heat and UV radiation.
NIOSH Method S292. Analyte: Naphthalene.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: Adsorption on charcoal and description with carbon disulfide. Flow
Rate: 1 l/min. Sample Size: 200 liters.
Special References:
Special Reports:
REVIEW & BIBLIOGRAPHY (175 PAGES): RODD ET AL, THORPE'S DICTIONARY OF APPLIED
CHEMISTRY 8, 263 (1947).
USEPA; Ambient Water Quality Criteria Doc: Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Draft)
(1980)
USEPA; Ambient Water Quality Criteria: Naphthalene
(Draft) (1980) USEPA 440/5-80-059
Health & Welfare Canada; Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (1979) Report No.
80-EHD-50
USEPA; Health Assessment Document: Polycyclic Organic Matter (1979) EPA-600/9-79-008
Agarwal DP and Gowdde HW; Experimentia 42 (10): 1148-54 (1986)
USEPA/ODW; Drinking Water Health Advisories for 15 Volatile Organic Chemicals (1990)
NTIS No. PB90-259821
DHHS/NTP; Toxicology & Carcinogenesis Studies of Naphthalene
in B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies) Technical Report Series No. 410 (1992) NIH Publication
No. 92-3141
U.S. Dept Health & Human Services/Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry;
Toxicological Profile for Naphthalene,
1-Methylnaphthalene, and 2-Methylnaphthalene (Update) (1995) NTIS# PB/95/264362
Synonyms and Identifiers:
Synonyms:
ALBOCARBON
**PEER REVIEWED**
DEZODORATOR
**PEER REVIEWED**
MOTH BALLS
**PEER REVIEWED**
MOTH FLAKES
**PEER REVIEWED**
NAFTALEN (POLISH)
**PEER REVIEWED**
NAPHTHALIN
**PEER REVIEWED**
NAPHTHALINE
**PEER REVIEWED**
NAPHTHENE
**PEER REVIEWED**
NCI-C52904
**PEER REVIEWED**
TAR CAMPHOR
**PEER REVIEWED**
WHITE TAR
**PEER REVIEWED**
Formulations/Preparations:
GRADES: BY MELTING POINT, 74 DEG C MIN (CRUDE) TO ABOVE 79 DEG C (REFINED);
SCINTILLATION (80-81 DEG C)
Produced in several grades characterized by solidification point ... petroleum naphthalene ... one grade ... 79.0 deg C minimum. Coal
tar naphthalene ... 78 deg crude, 77.5 deg low
sulfur, and an 80 deg refined material with a purity of 99.6%
Shipping Name/ Number DOT/UN/NA/IMO:
UN 1334; Naphthalene (crude or refined)
UN 2304; Naphthalene, molten
IMO 4.1; Naphthalene (crude or refined); naphthalene, molten
Standard Transportation Number:
49 403 60; Naphthalene or naphthalin,
crude (tar camphor)
49 403 61; Naphthalene or naphthalin,
other than crude (tar camphor)
EPA Hazardous Waste Number:
U165; A toxic waste when a discarded commercial chemical product or manufacturing
chemical intermediate or an off-specification commercial chemical product or a
manufacturing chemical intermediate.
RTECS Number:
NIOSH/QJ0525000
Administrative Information:
Hazardous Substances Databank Number: 184
Last Revision Date: 20011010
Last Review Date: Reviewed by SRP on 11/07/1991
Update History:
Complete Update on 10/10/2001, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/09/2001, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/24/2000, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/13/2000, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/03/2000, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 02/08/2000, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 02/02/2000, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 11/18/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 09/21/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/26/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 07/20/1999, 7 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/29/1999, 4 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 03/22/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 03/19/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/01/1999, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/20/1999, 2 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 12/18/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 11/20/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 11/12/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 10/23/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 09/11/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 09/02/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 06/02/1998, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 10/17/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/18/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 05/08/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/27/1997, 2 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/11/1997, 3 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 02/26/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 02/24/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 02/04/1997, 2 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/24/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/09/1997, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 10/12/1996, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 06/06/1996, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 04/16/1996, 8 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 03/29/1996, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/18/1996, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 11/10/1995, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 07/17/1995, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 05/17/1995, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/23/1995, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 12/19/1994, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 10/11/1994, 2 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/02/1994, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 05/05/1994, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/25/1994, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 11/30/1993, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 09/15/1993, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/07/1993, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/04/1993, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 01/22/1993, 80 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field update on 12/11/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 11/25/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 11/05/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 09/18/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/17/1992, 78 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 04/16/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 01/13/1992, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 09/12/1991, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 09/10/1991, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 09/10/1991, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 07/09/1991, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field update on 01/28/1991, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 10/22/1990, 3 fields added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 05/04/1990, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Field Update on 03/06/1990, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 12/19/1989, 1 field added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 08/08/1989, 109 fields added/edited/deleted.
Complete Update on 03/31/1986
Record Length: 223841